STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN
The brain consists of the following departments: medulla oblongata, cerebellum, pons, midbrain, intermediate and cerebral hemispheres.
The medulla oblongata, pons and cerebellum are classified as hindbrain, and the diencephalon and cerebrum - to forebrain.
In the medulla oblongata are defense reflex centers- blinking and gagging, coughing and sneezing reflexes, and some others. Another group of centers is associated with nutrition and breathing - these are the centers of inhalation and exhalation, salivation, swallowing and secretion of gastric juice.
Bridge, responsible for movement eyeballs and facial expressions. The auditory tract also passes through the bridge.
Cerebellum coordinates movements, makes them smooth, accurate and proportionate, eliminates unnecessary movements, for example, those arising due to inertia.
Midbrain- the part of the brain where the centers that provide clarity of vision and hearing are located. They regulate the size of the pupil and the curvature of the lens, muscle tone. Thanks to them, the body's stability is maintained when standing, walking, running, or changing posture.
Forebrain consists of two sections: the diencephalon and the cerebral hemispheres. This is the largest section of the brain, consisting of the right and left halves.
Diencephalon consists of three parts - upper, central and lower. Central part thalamus. All information from the senses flows here. Here comes the first assessment of its significance. Thanks to the thalamus only important information enters the cerebral cortex.
Bottom part the diencephalon is called hypothalamus. It regulates metabolism and energy. In its cores there are centers of thirst and its quenching, hunger and saturation. The hypothalamus controls the satisfaction of needs and maintaining a constant internal environment - homeostasis.
With the participation of the diencephalon and other parts of the brain, many cyclic movements are carried out: walking, running, jumping, swimming, etc., as well as maintaining posture between movements.
Large hemispheres of the brain. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal.
Analysis occurs in the neurons of the cerebral cortex nerve impulses coming from the senses. So, V occipital lobe neurons of the visual zone are concentrated, in the temporal- auditory. In the parietal lobe, there is an area of skin-muscular sensitivity.
Olfactory and gustatory zones are located on the inner surface temporal lobes. The centers that regulate active behavior are located in the front parts of the brain, in the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex. The motor zone is located in front of the central gyrus.
Right hemisphere controls the organs of the left side of the body and receives information from the space on the left. Left hemisphere regulates the functioning of the organs of the right side of the body and perceives information from the space on the right.
The main feature of the human brain is that the right and left hemispheres are functionally different. In the left hemisphere, as a rule, right-handed people have speech centers. Here the situation and related actions are analyzed according to individual parameters, generalizations are developed, and logical conclusions are drawn. The right hemisphere recognizes images and melodies and remembers faces.
Old and new cerebral cortex. Centers associated with complex instincts, emotions, and memory are concentrated here.
old bark allows the body to distinguish between favorable and unfavorable events and respond to them with fear, joy, aggression, and anxiety. This is where information about experienced events is stored in memory. This makes it possible, under similar circumstances, to take actions that will lead to success.
IN neocortex, information comes from internal organs and from the senses. In the frontal lobes, the most important one is selected from numerous needs and the goal of the activity is formed, a plan for achieving the goal based on an analysis of the situation and past experience.
From the above, we conclude that the brain is an organ that coordinates and regulates all vital functions of the body and controls behavior. All our thoughts, feelings, sensations, desires and movements are associated with the work of the brain. And if it does not function, the person goes into a vegetative state: the ability to perform any actions, sensations or reactions to external influences. Scientists have found that:
Left hemisphere leads the following types mental activity:
— Mathematics
- Languages
— Logic
- Analysis
- Letter
— Other similar activities;
The right hemisphere is responsible for:
— Imagination
— Color perception
- Music
- Sense of rhythm
— Dreams
— Other similar activities.
Our intellectual work can be compared to the work of our muscles. The brain, just like muscles, can and should be trained so that it is always in excellent condition. The more we develop it, the more significant benefits it will bring us in the future. Getting into a routine won't improve it and won't do us any good.
WITH scientific point vision, the older we get, the more important the role of brain training plays. It stops the deterioration associated with brain aging and slows down this process. WITH medical point vision - this of course does not cure Alzheimer's disease or dementia, but it significantly reduces the rate of development of these processes.
If you want your brain to always be at its peak, then you need to follow the simple recommendations below:
Our brain loves:
1) Mental activity. Read more. Devote more time to reading a variety of literature: books, newspapers and magazines. Try to cover wide range areas of knowledge. Learning something new will not only keep your brain busy, but it will also make you smarter. Play educational games. Chess, checkers, scrabble, crosswords and sudoku, drawing and sewing will help develop your memory abilities.
2) Good nutrition. For the fruitful functioning of the brain and memory, a nutritious, varied diet is necessary. A lack of certain amino acids, vitamins and microelements will lead to memory loss and degenerative changes brain
Carbohydrates: The brain makes up only 2% of the body's weight, but consumes 20% of the energy. And the main source of energy is carbohydrates. Carbohydrates that are good for the brain are complex carbohydrates(cereals, pasta from durum wheat, fruits and vegetables. If carbohydrates enter the body in insufficient quantities, then you will be “slow to think”, you will feel tired, because your brain simply will not have enough energy. Carbohydrates in the diet should be about 70%.
Proteins: The role of protein for the brain and memory is enormous. Proteins are building materials for nerve cells, and for neurotransmitters, without which the memorization process is impossible; and for hormones that determine brain activity. Proteins also perform the function of receiving and transporting energy - even if you eat well on carbohydrates, but there is not enough protein in your body, you will also feel tired and depressed, because energy can neither be absorbed by cells nor delivered to the body. required areas brain And the brain no longer has anything to build the necessary tissues, hormones and neurotransmitters from.
Therefore, protein should be regularly present in your menu at least 3 times a week: beef, pork, poultry, fish, cottage cheese, eggs, milk). The diet should contain about 15% protein.
Fats: Along with carbohydrates, fats act as a source of energy. Most healthy fat is an Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid that directly affects a person’s mental capabilities and memory. Therefore, it should be present on your menu at least 2 times a week. fatty fish(herring, salmon, trout, salmon). Fats in the diet should be 15%.
3) Vitamins, amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids
, macro and micro elements.
4) Quiet, long sleep. During sleep, processes occur involving the most important neurotransmitter (a substance through which nerve impulses are transmitted between neurons) GABA. Without normal sleep, memory at the chemical level is unable to work at full capacity. In addition, the human brain is tuned to biological rhythms, the changes of day and night, so you need to sleep at night, since it is in the dark that things happen full recovery brain cells.
5) Classical music has a beneficial effect on brain cells.
6) Sports promotes the development of gray cells (During physical activity the brain is better supplied with blood and oxygen, which helps maintain its activity. It is equally important that while the muscles are working, a number of hormones necessary for memory function are released.
If for some reason you do not have the opportunity or desire to go to the gym, then increase your physical activity: go dancing, refuse the elevator, try to walk more. Daily sentries hiking improve brain function and prevent many diseases. Inactivity in the body will sooner or later lead to inactivity in the brain.
7) Aromatherapy– activates and relaxes the brain (Rosemary and sage increase blood flow to the brain, promoting better functioning of the mind and body).
8) New impressions. Everything new has a beneficial effect on the brain (new people, new place, new experiences, etc.).
9) Sex and love.
Our brain doesn't like:
1) Lack of sleep provokes the development of toxic components in the brain.
2) Alcohol– kills brain cells.
3) Negative emotions(stress, anger, routine).
4) Inadequate, meager and monotonous nutrition.
5) Sedentary lifestyle.
Shoshina Vera Nikolaevna
Therapist, education: Northern medical university. Work experience 10 years.
Articles written
Scientists consider the human brain and its functions to be a mystery of science. We already know a lot about it and its work, so we are able to treat numerous diseases that were considered fatal. Knowledge about the structure and functioning of the cerebral hemispheres plays an important role in understanding the functioning of the brain, and also helps to understand the problems that arise in diseases and.
Conditions and pathologies that lead to severe consequences and even death are amenable to surgical and conservative treatment bringing people back to normal life after serious injuries and complex surgical interventions.
The human spinal cord is connected to the brain and looks like a solid element up to the midbrain. It is then divided into two symmetrical but ambiguous halves, which are called the “cerebral hemispheres.”
Both together are called the anterior one. The connecting element between them is the corpus callosum. The part located below is called the “base of the brain”.
Differing from the structure of the organ of other mammals in size, the cerebral hemispheres Homo sapiens developed and cover the intermediate and middle ones. In size, only similar formations in dolphins and some species of higher primates can be compared with them.
The structure of tissues includes two types of substance:
Organs, their functions and coordinated work all systems are controlled by the BP cortex. She represents the thinnest layer several millimeters of gray matter consisting of neuron cell bodies. The cortex is the main part of the brain. It covers the surface of the front and is different large area due to the fact that the hemispheres have pronounced folding, which is called sulci and convolutions. The approximate surface area is from 2000 to 2500 square centimeters.
The structure and features of the cerebral cortex determine our interactivity, that is, the ability to come into contact with the environment, evaluate it, and obtain the most important data.
It has a rather complex organization and an original structure and structure. It is dotted with deep grooves and folds called convolutions. The deepest of all share the whole forebrain(each hemisphere) into lobes:
Beneath the occipital lobes is the cerebellum, or “little brain.” It has three pairs of “legs” through which it receives extremely important information from the cortex, spinal cord, brain stem, ganglia and other sources. This is an extremely important part, although small in size.
It performs the functions of correcting errors that can creep in with incoming and outgoing signals. It contains up to 10% of the neurons located in the central nervous system person. The so-called granular layer is especially rich in them.
The main activities of the BP are related to the following most important human functions and qualities:
The large hemispheres are not the same - they are responsible for different functions. The right is responsible for everything connected with it. The left hemisphere is associated with the abstract and the ability to speak. So, with diseases and injuries to this part of the brain, a person is deprived of coherent speech.
The hemispheres are separated from each other by a longitudinal fissure, in the depth of which there is a corpus callosum that connects them to each other. The transverse lobe separates the occipital lobes from the cerebellum, and it borders the medulla oblongata, which connects to the spinal cord. The weight of the cerebral hemispheres ranges from 78 to 90% of the mass of the organ.
The cerebral cortex has layers that form its architectonics:
The cortex is a highly organized analyzer that allows you to process information received from the outside through the senses - vision, hearing, touch, smell, taste. It contains more cellular fluid than white matter, equipped with a large number blood vessels. The cerebral cortex is involved in the formation of cortical reflexes.
The surface of the cerebrum is covered with the so-called pallium, or cloak. It is this that forms the folds, which are commonly called convolutions and grooves. The pallium consists of gray and white matter.
The large hemispheres of the brain are covered with recognizable deep folds formed by grooves and convolutions. They give human brain characteristic appearance, increasing the area of the cortex. The pattern of convolutions is individual not only for each individual person, but even for the hemispheres of the same brain.
Each of them has a structure consisting of different types of surfaces:
Each part of the brain has its own “pattern” of convolutions and sulci.
Furrows are usually divided into three categories:
The pattern can be compared to fingerprints, since it is individual and is never completely identical even among close relatives.
The cerebral cortex of the human brain does not duplicate the structures of the subcortex, so any damage to it entails various disorders. They differ depending on which area is injured. Interestingly, in the cortex there are no specific control centers for individual muscles, but only a general set of “rules” for their work.
Damage to certain lobes of the cerebral hemispheres leads to the following consequences:
The structure of the brain gradually reveals all its secrets, allowing scientists to learn the relationships between its in separate parts and behavior, character, health and emotions of a person. There is still a lot that is unknown, but careful study allows us to delve deeper into the sources of many diseases that until recently were considered incurable.
Despite all the similarities of our brain with similar structures of other mammals, the human organ and cerebral hemispheres are, first of all, a unique creation of nature, which makes us intelligent people.
Diverse, but the main difference between humans is the uniquely developed forebrain, and therefore most higher functions It is this department that distinguishes humans from animals. The author of this article had the opportunity to read the most interesting and modern literature on this issue, so you can read about the functions of the parts of the brain associated with intelligence.
The newest function of the forebrain is planning and communication. This component of intelligence allows us to choose strategies during communication that will be beneficial in the long term. The anterior lobes of the cerebral cortex are involved in this. This department is responsible for the ability to think, remember the past and critically evaluate our activities, think through possible scenarios of events and solve the good old Hamlet question of whether we should act or not. Our organization depends on the degree of maturity of this area of the brain. So the functions of the forebrain are not such knowledge abstracted from life. Although, of course, you shouldn’t blame only your own people for sloppiness. biological features. This function can be developed.
All students and schoolchildren have no doubt about the importance of such a function of the forebrain as memory. This is also a function of the cerebral cortex. Why don't we remember what happened to us before we were two years old? Because the area of the cortex that is responsible for conscious memory was still immature. Recent research allows us to conclude that information storage is located in those zones where the impulse from the sensory organs has arrived, therefore different types memories are associated with different areas in the brain. However, all zones are characterized by satiety and fatigue, so it is critical for good memory to get enough sleep (at least 7 hours), because it is during sleep that the brain transfers data from temporary resources to permanent ones. Therefore, when preparing for exams, it is good to split your day into two parts with an afternoon nap.
Emotions closely related to memory what the best teachers and leaders use. They present the material so vividly that students or workers leave a strong emotional imprint in their minds, and the person doesn’t even have to make an effort to remember. Emotions are not only associated with our performance, but also with immunity. In people who constantly experience negative emotions, the number of cells that fight the development of pathogens that penetrate inside us decreases. Negative emotions also increase cortisol levels, which damage the brain. Therefore, you need to try to deceive the areas in the brain responsible for emotions. How to do this? Force your facial muscles to relax, then force yourself to smile artificially. You will immediately feel your mood change. This function of the forebrain is not given enough importance in our rational world, but suppressed emotions very cruelly take revenge on a person through illness. Responsible for emotions different departments In humans, not only the forebrain works, but also the cerebellum.
Function speeches is critical for a person to feel good in society. Scientists, in addition, have noticed that a person who constantly shows speech activity has less risk of getting So talk, read to yourself, write - and you will be healthy for a very long time. At least three areas in the brain are responsible for speech: part of the frontal gyrus, the posterior part of the auditory cortex of the brain, and the insula of Reille hidden in the depths.
Mathematical ability are very important to us in everyday life, even if girls allow themselves to make mistakes from time to time, attributing everything to “female logic.” The significance of this forebrain function is confirmed by the fact that for most highly paid professions It is critical to have good analytical brain function. Basic level mathematical abilities are approximately the same for everyone, and a lot depends on the attitude towards this activity and mood. It’s also interesting that good musicians often have impressive mathematical abilities.
Spatial thinking- also a very useful “in life” function. It includes a whole range of skills - the ability to notice details, and the ability to form a diagram of the arrangement of parts and compare existing data on similar structures with new ones. This process is mainly occupied by the same areas that are responsible for vision.
As you can see, the forebrain is the basis of our intelligence, the article talked about the different functions that are components of intelligence. For those interested in the details, I recommend the book by David Gamon and Allen Bragdon, called “Superbrain. Operation manual."
This is extremely complex system. Thanks to this organ, people have reached the level of development that is observed now. What is he like?
In modern school course Biology covers topics from simple to complex. First we talk about cells, protozoa, bacteria, plants, fungi. Later there is a transition to animals and humans. To some extent, this reflects the hypothetical course of evolution. Looking at the structure of, for example, worms, it is easy to notice that it is much simpler than that of humans or higher animals. But these organisms have something important - ganglion, performing the functions of the brain.
If you ask someone to draw the contents of a human skull, they will most likely draw a diagram of the hemispheres. This is truly one of the most noticeable and largest parts. But the forebrain also contains the medulla oblongata. In general, their structure is quite complex. And if we take into account a more detailed division, then we can even name all the parts of the forebrain:
Of course, there is an even more detailed division, but, as a rule, it is of interest only to specialists. Well, for those who are simply expanding their horizons, it will be much more interesting to find out what all these departments are doing. So what are the functions of the forebrain? And why are there differences between the thinking of right-handers and left-handers?
The forebrain includes the most recently developed parts. And this means that it is thanks to them that a person has the qualities that he has. And if the diencephalon is mainly concerned with the regulation of metabolism, primitive reflexes and needs, as well as simple physical activity, then the hemispheres are the very place where conscious thoughts arise, where learning and memorization of information occurs, and where something new is created.
The hemispheres are also conventionally divided into several parts-zones: parietal, frontal, posterior and temporal. And here there are cells that are involved, among other things, in the analysis of information coming from outside: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and tactile centers.
The most interesting thing is that from a functional point of view, the left and right hemispheres are different. Of course, there are known cases when, when one part of the brain was damaged, another took over its tasks, that is, there is a certain interchangeability, but in usual case the situation may be like this: the left hemisphere is engaged in analyzing the intonation of another person’s speech, and the right hemisphere is engaged in interpreting the meaning of what was said. This is why left-handers and right-handers, who have more developed different parts, think slightly differently.
Forebrain functions also include memory, different reactions on external stimuli, planning and constructing future scenarios and situations. The speech center is also located here. This is where all the high stuff happens nervous activity: creativity, reflections, ideas.
It is also quite interesting that the forebrain actively develops not only in prenatal period, but also in the first few years of life. Every new skill and skill, a learned word, any important information - all this forms new neural connections. And this kind of map is unique for each person.
>>Forebrain functions
§ 46. Functions of the forebrain
1. Where are perceived images recognized?
2. Do the left and right hemispheres perform the same functions?
The forebrain consists of two sections: the diencephalon and the cerebral hemispheres brain. This is the largest section of the brain, consisting of the right and left halves.
The diencephalon consists of three parts - upper, central and lower (Fig. 93-97). The central part of the diencephalon is called the thalamus. It consists of two paired formations separated III ventricle brain Everyone flocks here information from the senses. Here comes the first assessment of its significance. Thanks to the thalamus, only important information enters the cerebral cortex.
The lower part of the diencephalon is called the hypothalamus. It regulates metabolism and energy. In its cores there are centers of thirst and its quenching, hunger and saturation. The hypothalamus controls the satisfaction of needs and maintaining a constant internal environment - homeostasis. With the participation of the diencephalon and other parts of the brain, many cyclic movements are carried out: walking, running, jumping, swimming, etc., as well as maintaining posture between movements.
The large hemispheres of the brain are divided by a deep anteroposterior fissure into left and right parts. In its depths there is a bridge of white matter connecting them - the corpus callosum.
The surface of the cerebrum is formed by the cortex, consisting of gray matter. The bodies of neurons are concentrated there. They are arranged in columns, forming several layers.
The cortex is a white substance consisting of a mass nerve fibers, connecting cortical neurons with each other and with underlying parts of the brain. In the thickness of the hemispheres, among the white matter, there are islands of gray matter in the form of nuclei, forming subcortical centers.
The surface of the hemispheres is folded. The protruding parts of the surface form convolutions, and the depressions form furrows. They greatly increase the surface area of the cerebral cortex. The deepest grooves divide each hemisphere into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal (Fig. 95). They are adjacent to the corresponding bones and therefore bear their names. The central sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe, the lateral sulcus separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes.
In the neurons of the cerebral cortex, the analysis of nerve impulses coming from the sense organs occurs (Fig. 96). It is carried out in sensitive areas that occupy the middle and back parts of the brain. Thus, the neurons of the visual zone are concentrated in the occipital lobe, and the auditory zone is concentrated in the temporal lobe. In the parietal zone, behind the central gyrus, there is a zone of musculocutaneous sensitivity.
The olfactory and gustatory zones are located on the inner surface of the temporal lobes. The centers that regulate active behavior are located in the front parts of the brain, in the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex.
The motor zone is located in front of the central gyrus.
The right hemisphere controls the organs of the left side of the body and receives information from the space on the left. The left hemisphere regulates the functioning of the organs of the right side of the body and perceives information from space on the right.
The main feature of the large human brain is that the right and left hemispheres are functionally different. In the left hemisphere, as a rule, right-handed people have speech centers. Here the situation and related actions are analyzed according to individual parameters, generalizations are developed, and logical conclusions are drawn. The right hemisphere perceives the situation as a whole. This is where so-called intuitive solutions arise. The right hemisphere recognizes images and melodies and remembers faces.
In the cerebral hemispheres, temporary connections are formed between signal, conditioned reflex stimuli and vital events. Through these connections, individual experience is accumulated.
Old and new cerebral cortex. Old bark is already present in reptiles. In mammals, its appearance is associated with the development of the sense of smell. It surrounds the base of the brain like a belt and includes the subcortical nuclei (Fig. 97).
Centers associated with complex instincts, emotions, and memory are concentrated here. The old cortex allows the body to distinguish between favorable and unfavorable events and respond to them with fear, joy, aggression, and anxiety. This is where information about experienced events is stored in memory. This makes it possible, under similar circumstances, to take actions that will lead to success. Unlike the neocortex, the old cortex cannot accurately recognize objects, estimate the likelihood of future events, and plan responses to their occurrence.
And the new cortex receives information from internal organs and from sensory organs. In the frontal lobes, the most important one is selected from numerous needs and the goal of the activity is formed, a plan for achieving the goal based on an analysis of the situation and past experience.
Here, with the participation of speech centers, scenarios of future behavior are developed. They are implemented by other departments of the head and spinal cord related to executive bodies.
Information about the results achieved comes via feedback V frontal lobes hemispheres and, depending on the effect obtained, the activity stops or continues in a modified form.
Forebrain; diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus; cerebral hemispheres, corpus callosum, cortex, sulci, gyri, lobes of the brain: sensory and motor areas; temporary (conditioned reflex) connections; old and new bark.
1. What divisions are distinguished in the forebrain?
2. What are the functions of the thalamus and hypothalamus?
3. Why is the surface of the hemispheres folded?
4. How is gray and white matter distributed in the cerebral hemispheres? What functions do they perform?
5. What are the functions of the old cortex?
6. How are functions distributed between the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum?
7. Which connections in the body are called direct and which are called reverse?
Explain in which hemisphere the damage to the motor centers occurred if the patient experienced paralysis of the right leg or arm.
Kolosov D.V. Mash R.D., Belyaev I.N. Biology 8th grade
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