I became acquainted with military topography in my second year at my institute. The conventional signs used there are slightly different from the general topographic ones due to the need to designate completely different objects. Moreover, the color palette is widely used, which, in my opinion, makes these maps more readable.
Such signs on military maps indicate friendly and enemy troops, types of units (infantry, tanks) in the operational theater, the placement of defensive structures, the direction of probable attacks, etc. The difference from ordinary maps lies in the need to depict special objects, which on civilian there can be no maps. For example, military helicopters alone can have several different image options, depending on their purpose: reconnaissance, combat, anti-submarine, etc. Colors play an important role in the dynamic information of the map. In the Russian Army it is customary to use the following colors:
The army of each military bloc has its own colors and designations.
As the teacher explained to me, a military map should be as difficult as possible for the enemy to read. Therefore, the images used on it should not be read intuitively. Roughly speaking, a tank should not be designated as a square with a line.
However, general requirements for their commanders must exist. In times when plans were drawn by hand, an officer's ruler was suitable for this purpose. Yes, it is still used to create large-scale plans, when it is necessary to accurately and quickly, in relatively calm conditions, sketch out a plan. But still, in all countries of the world, not even on purpose, there are objects that are designated the same. For example, a radio station in both the Russian Federation and NATO countries is symbolized by a lightning bolt icon.
Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHICAL SYMBOLS
On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic conventional signs
- a system of symbolic graphic notations used for depiction on maps various objects and phenomena, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics.
Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many symbols have outlines that resemble the top or side view of the local objects they depict. For example, symbols for factories, oil rigs, isolated trees, and bridges are similar in shape to the appearance of the listed local objects.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into scale (contour), non-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear symbols are classified as a separate group.
Rice. 8.1. Types of symbols
Large-scale
(contour) signs are conventional signs used to fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. From a plan or map, using such a sign, you can determine not only the location of the object, but its size and outline.
The boundaries of area objects on the plan can be depicted as solid lines different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and squares in populated areas), etc. Spot The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural lands of the area, the boundaries of embankments and excavations near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a specific order.
Linear symbols(a type of large-scale symbols) are used when depicting linear objects - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is significantly exaggerated. For example, a highway symbol on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale
symbol, for example, a boundary sign, a separately growing tree, a kilometer pole, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point
off-scale symbol. The main point is:
Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel warehouses and gas tanks; 9 - active mines and adits; 10 - oil and gas wells without derricks
Rice. 8.3. Wide base signs
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones
Rice. 8.4. Signs with a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and gas stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees
Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - lime kilns and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)
Objects expressed by off-scale symbols serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols
(Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and non-scale; they serve to further characterize local items and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conventional sign of a forest, it shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, transverse strokes on a conventional sign of a railway show the number of tracks.
Rice. 8.6. Explanatory symbols of a bridge, highway, river
Rice. 8.7. Characteristics of forest stands
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between trees
The maps contain signatures of the proper names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and numerical designations. They allow you to get additional information about quantitative and qualitative characteristics local objects and relief. Lettered explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conventional abbreviations.
For a more visual representation of the terrain on maps, each group of symbols related to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with paint of a certain color.
Settlements
on topographic maps ah scales 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a straight font, and a rural settlement - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural settlement, the number of houses is indicated (if known), and if they have district and village councils, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of city and holiday villages are printed on maps in capital letters of italic font. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, main and through passages, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and other buildings that have landmark significance are identified.
Wide streets and squares, depicted on the map scale, are shown with large-scale symbols in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets - with conventional out-of-scale symbols, main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider clearance.
Rice. 8.8. Settlements
Populated areas are depicted in the most detail on maps at scales of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Blocks with predominant fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over with the appropriate color. As a rule, all buildings located on the outskirts of populated areas are shown.
The map at a scale of 1: 100,000 basically preserves the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important items that have the value of landmarks. Individual buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, buildings are combined into blocks and filled with black paint; the fire resistance of buildings on the 1:100,000 map is not highlighted.
Selected local items
significant landmarks are plotted on the map most accurately. Such local objects include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separate buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, mounds, rock outcrops, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional out-of-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, signature check yy. with the sign of a mine means that the mine is coal.
Rice. 8.9. Selected local items
Road network
on topographic maps it is depicted in full and detail. Railways are shown on maps and divided according to the number of tracks (single-, double- and triple-track), gauge (normal and narrow-gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special symbols. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On railways ah show stations, sidings, platforms, depots, waypoints and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures. The proper names of the station (passages, platforms) are signed next to their symbols. If the station is located in or near a populated area and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this populated area is emphasized. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is located in the middle, then the tracks run on both sides of the station.
Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and structures
Symbols for platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by corresponding abbreviated captions ( pl., bl. p., B, tun.). Next to the symbol of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the height and width, and the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Road
And ground
roads
when depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved unpaved roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads in the area. The width and surface material of motorways and highways are indicated directly on their symbols. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8
- width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12
- width of the road from ditch to ditch; A- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, usually only a label is given for the width of the road from ditch to ditch. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps., improved dirt roads - yellow or orange.
Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads
Topographic maps show unpaved dirt (country) roads, field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. If there is a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps of scales 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascines sections of roads. If on such sections of roads, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called ruts and rowings, respectively. Fascinous sections of roads, roads and boats are indicated on maps by dashes perpendicular to the conventional road sign.
On highways and dirt roads they show bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas).
Bridges
depicted on maps with symbols of different designs depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); In this case, two-tier bridges, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges, are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the symbols of bridges with a length of 3 m or more, and located on roads (except for highways and improved highways), their numerical characteristics are signed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the load capacity in tons Before the fraction, indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the bridge symbol (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is made of stone (material of construction), the numerator is the length and width of the roadway in meters, the denominator is the load capacity in tons.
Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railway
When designating bridges on highways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. Characteristics of bridges less than 3 m long are not given.
Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are written next to them. The larger the map scale, the more detailed water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the map scale. Smaller bodies of water are shown only in arid and desert areas, as well as in cases where they serve as reliable landmarks.
Rice. 8.13. Hydrography
Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches Topographic maps show everything. It has been established that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of scale 1:100,000 - up to 10 m are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted by two lines, and those less than 3 m wide - by one.
Width and depth of rivers (channels) in meters is written as a fraction: the numerator is the width, the denominator is the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (canal).
River flow speed (m/s), represented by two lines, point in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low-water periods in relation to sea level is also indicated (water edge marks).
Shown on rivers and canals dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give the corresponding characteristics.
Wells denoted by blue circles next to which a letter is placed TO or signature art. To. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines are shown by solid blue lines with dots (every 8 mm), and underground ones by broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select water supply sources on the map in steppe and desert areas, the main wells are marked with a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given to the left of the symbol of the well, and to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.
Soil
-vegetable
cover
are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs for forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sand, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conventional symbols is often used signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the area occupied by the meadow is marked with a contour, inside which the symbols of swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests and shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps and meadows, are indicated on maps by dotted lines. If the boundary of a forest, garden or other land is a linear local object (ditch, fence, road), then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, bushes. The area of the forest inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with the icon deciduous, coniferous, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory captions and numbers. For example, the signature indicates that the forest is dominated by conifer trees (pine), their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicting clearings on a map, their width is indicated in meters.
Rice. 8.14. Forests
Rice. 8.15. Shrubs
Rice. 8.16. Swamps
The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. Difficult and impassable swamps are shown on maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on maps they are shown with vertical blue shading, dividing them into passable (intermittent shading) and impassable (solid shading).
On topographic maps, as their scale becomes smaller, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these notations can be represented as truncated pyramid, at the base of which there are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.
Colors
topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strong points and boundaries are printed upon publication black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, watercourses, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); area of trees and shrubs - green(dwarf forests, dwarf trees, shrubs, vineyards - light green), neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and highways - orange, neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads - yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conventional abbreviations of proper names
political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, working village - r.p.).
A font is a graphic design of letters and numbers. The fonts used on topographic maps and maps are called cartographic.
Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the inclination of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with inclinations to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- according to lightness - light, semi-bold and bold;
- by the presence of hooks.
On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and outline italics (Fig. 8.17).
Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive writing of numbers
Topographic (hair) font
T-132 is used for signing rural settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hairlines.
Blank italics
is used in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management maps, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory captions and characteristics are written in italics: astronomical points, ruins, plants, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape . The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computing font
or cursive writing of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for recording in field journals and calculation sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and office work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern computer technologies provide a wide, almost unlimited selection of fonts different types, size, pattern and tilt.
In addition to conventional signs, topographic plans and maps contain various inscriptions. They make up important element content, explain the depicted objects, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.
According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:
The inscriptions on the cards are made in various fonts with different letter patterns. Maps can use up to 15 different fonts. The letter design of each font has elements unique to that font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
For groups of related objects, certain fonts are used. For example, roman fonts are used for the names of cities, italic fonts are used for the names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be clearly readable.
In the location of the inscriptions of proper names there are distinctive features. The names of settlements are located with right side outline parallel to the north or south side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and should not be placed within the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the outline of the settlement.
Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps
The names of area objects are placed inside the contours so that the label is evenly distributed over the entire area of the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its bed. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the contour. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at their sources, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the name inscriptions are placed so that there is no doubt about the name of the rivers. Before the merger, the main river and its tributary are signed; after the merger, the name of the main river is required.
When placing inscriptions that are not horizontal, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription should be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom, if the contour stretches from north-east to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of seas and large lakes are placed inside the contours of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. Inscriptions of small lakes are placed like inscriptions of settlements.
The names of mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are written in the direction of their extent.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they convey. The number of houses in rural-type settlements, the heights of the earth's surface and the water's edge are signed parallel to the north or south side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and their covering material are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be placed in the least crowded places on the cartographic image so that there is no doubt about which object they refer to. Inscriptions should not cross river confluences, characteristic relief details, or images of objects that have landmark values.
Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html
Geographic map- a visual representation of the earth’s surface on a plane. The map shows the location and state of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is shown on the maps, they are called political, physical, etc.
Cards are classified by various signs:
Conventional signs are used on maps and plans to depict the situation (rivers, lakes, roads, vegetation, settlements, etc.). They are divided into three groups: 1) contour, 2) non-scale and 3) explanatory symbols.
Contour symbols depict local objects on maps and plans, expressed on the scale of the map, for example, arable lands, meadows, forests, vegetable gardens, seas, lakes, etc. The outlines (contours) of such objects are depicted on a large-scale map and on the plan by similar figures. The boundaries of these figures are drawn with dotted lines if they do not coincide with lines marked in any way on the ground (roads, fences, ditches).
The areas inside the contours on the map or plan are filled with established uniform icons, which represent contour symbols.
Non-scale symbols are used to depict on a map or plan local objects or points that cannot be expressed on the map scale. These symbols are called out-of-scale because they depict objects without maintaining scale. Off-scale symbols depict on a map or plan such objects as roads, bridges, kilometer posts, road signs, wells, geodetic points, etc.
These conventional signs indicate the exact position of the objects they indicate, which makes it possible to measure the distances between the latter on a map.
The third group of symbols consists of explanatory symbols. These include symbols on the map that provide additional characteristics of local items. Explanatory signs are always used in combination with contour and off-scale symbols.
An explanatory symbol is, for example, the inscription 0.3/PC at the ford. It means that the depth of the river at the ford is 0.3 m and that the bottom is sandy and rocky.
The symbols used on Soviet topographic maps are almost identical in design for all scales, differing only in size.
Definition 1
Cartographic symbols- symbolic graphic symbols that are used to depict various objects and their characteristics on cartographic images (maps and topographic plans).
Sometimes conventional signs are called map legend.
Depending on the scale, $3$ groups of conventional signs are distinguished:
Using area scale symbols, extended objects are displayed on a map scale. On a map, scale marks allow you to determine not only the location of an object, but also its size and outline.
Example 1
Scale symbols are the territory of the state on a map of scale $1:10,000,000$ or a reservoir on a map of scale $1:10,000$.
Linear symbols are used to display objects that are significantly extended in one dimension, such as roads. Only one dimension (in which the object is most extended) is consistent with the scale on such signs, while the other is scale-free. The position of an object is determined by a conventional or explicit centerline.
Out-of-scale point symbols are used on maps to display features whose dimensions are not expressed on the map. The largest cities on the world map are displayed with out-of-scale signs - dots. The actual placement of the object is determined by main point point symbol.
The main point is placed at off-scale signs as follows:
Explanatory signs are intended to characterize local items and their varieties. Explanatory signs may indicate the number of railway tracks and the direction of river flow.
Note 1
On large-scale maps, the signs of individual objects are indicated separately; on smaller-scale maps, objects of the same type are grouped and marked with one sign.
On maps of scale $1:100,000 and larger, all settlements are indicated along with a caption of their names. Moreover, the names of cities are written in upright capital letters, rural settlements - in lowercase letters, urban and holiday villages - in lowercase slanted letters.
Large-scale maps display external contours and layout, highlighting major highways, businesses, prominent knowledge and landmarks.
Example 2
On maps of scale $1:25\000$ and $1:50\000$ the type of building (fireproof or non-fireproof) is shown in color.
The figure below shows signs of settlements used on maps of various eras.
Individual local objects, which are landmarks, are depicted on the map mainly with off-scale signs. These can be towers, mines, adits, churches, radio masts, rock outcrops.
Relief elements are marked on the map with appropriate symbols.
Note 2
An object of natural origin is depicted with lines and signs brown.
Transport infrastructure objects displayed on topographic maps include road and railway networks, structures and bridges.
When plotted on a map, paved roads (freeways, improved highways, improved dirt roads) and unpaved roads are distinguished. All paved roads are shown on the map, indicating the width and material of the pavement.
The color of the road on the map indicates its type. Orange They are applied to highways and highways, yellow (occasionally orange) - improved dirt roads, without color - unpaved country roads, field, forest and seasonal roads.
The map depicts the following elements of the hydrographic network - the coastal part of the seas, rivers, lakes, canals, streams, wells, ponds and other bodies of water.
Reservoirs are plotted on the map if their area on the image is more than $1 mm^2$. In other cases, a pond is applied only because it is of high importance, for example in arid areas. Next to the objects their name is indicated.
The characteristics of objects of the hydrographic network are indicated next to the signature of the name of the object. In particular, they indicate in the form of a fraction the width (numerator), depth and nature of the soil (denominator), as well as the speed (in m/s) and direction of the flow. Hydraulic structures - ferries, dams, locks - are also indicated along with their characteristics. Rivers and canals are mapped in full. In this case, the type of display is determined by the width of the object and the scale of the map.
Note 4
In particular, with a map scale of more than $1:50,000$, objects with a width of less than $5$ m, with a scale of less than $1:100,000$ - less than $10$ m are depicted with a $1$ line, and wider objects - with two lines. Also, $2$ lines indicate channels and ditches with a width of $3$ m or more, and with a smaller width - one line.
On large-scale maps, blue circles indicate wells, with the letter “k” or “art.k” in the case of an artesian well placed next to them. In dry areas, wells and water supply facilities are shown with enlarged signs. Water pipelines on maps are shown as lines with blue dots: solid lines - above-ground, broken lines - underground.
Often, when displaying land cover on a map, a combination of scale and off-scale symbols is used. Signs denoting forests, shrubs, gardens, swamps, meadows, and character are large-scale, and individual objects, for example, free-standing trees, are non-scale.
Example 3
A swampy meadow is displayed on the map as a combination of symbols of meadow, bushes and swamp in a closed contour.
The contours of areas of terrain occupied by forest, bushes or swamps are drawn with a dotted line, except when the border is a fence, roads or other linear local object.
Forested areas indicate green with a symbol indicating the type of forest (coniferous, deciduous or mixed). Areas with forest growth or nurseries are shown in pale green on the map.
Example 4
The picture below on the left shows a coniferous pine forest with an average tree height of $25$ meters and a width of $0.3$ m, and a typical tree trunk spacing of $6$ m. The picture on the right shows a deciduous maple forest with a tree height of $12$ m and a trunk width of $0.2$ m, the distance between which is on average $3$ meters.
Swamps are shown on the map by horizontal shading in blue. In this case, the type of hatching shows the degree of passability: intermittent hatching – passable, solid – difficult and impassable.
Note 5
Swamps with a depth of less than $0.6$ m are considered passable.
The blue vertical shading on the map indicates salt marshes. Just like for swamps, solid shading indicates impassable salt marshes, intermittent shading indicates passable ones.
The colors used to depict objects on maps are universal for all scales. Black line marks – buildings, structures, local objects, strongholds and borders, brown line marks – relief elements, blue – hydrographic network. Area signs of light blue color – water mirror of hydrographic network objects, green color – areas of tree and shrub vegetation, orange– neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and highways, yellow – neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads.
Note 6
On military and special maps special symbols are applied.
Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .
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