Economic changes led to political and social changes, consumer standards, lifestyle and thinking of Italians changed. At the same time, the price of the “economic miracle” meant uneven and cyclical economic development, dependence on foreign capital investments and imported technologies, lagging agriculture, migration of the rural population to cities and, consequently, increased unemployment, worsening housing and transport problems, and slow wage growth. Remained especially serious problem of the South.
The regional backwardness of the South (six southern regions and the islands of Sicily and Sardinia) has historically been a sore point for Italy and was the result of an imbalance in the distribution of productive forces. In the early 50s. the share of the southern regions in the country's agriculture was 33.2%, industry - 15.1%. Labor productivity was significantly lower than in the North. At the same time, the depth of the problem lay not only in economic backwardness, but also in its significant impact on the social and political spheres. In the South region, which occupies 43% of the country's territory, over 1/3 of Italy's population lived, and per capita income was in the 50s. about half the level of the rest of the country. The unemployment rate in the southern regions was twice as high as in the northern regions. Representing an area of huge agrarian overpopulation, unemployment and poverty, from where hundreds of thousands of people emigrated to work in the northern regions of the country and abroad (80% of total number Italian emigrants), the South received twice as much from the state budget as it gave. The historical underdevelopment of the South, the social and cultural backwardness of the population, and the criminal influence of the mafia on all aspects of life impeded the overall economic growth of the country.
With the creation in 1950 of the Cash Fund of the South, a state fund for special long-term financing of backward areas, a broad and permanent state policy for the development of the South began. An additional source was financing the economy of the southern regions through mixed enterprises.
Government policy has developed two main approaches to solving this problem. At first, the practical course was based on the concept of creating the prerequisites for the independent development of the economy of the South. Therefore, significant investments were directed here to develop agriculture, infrastructure, and then industry. A few years later it emerged weaknesses the concept of “autonomy”, it was revised, and in 1956. the idea expressed in the “Vanoni plan” (one of the functionaries of the Christian Democratic Party) is accepted. Its meaning was to accelerate the development of the economy of the South through its inclusion in the general economic system of Italy. The practical implementation of this idea in the 60-70s. carried out by the "left center".
The financial flow amounted to in the 70s. about 50% of all government investments made it possible to create heavy industry sectors such as metallurgy and mechanical engineering in the southern regions. The South turned from agrarian to industrial-agrarian. At the same time, zones of decline continued to coexist next to developed areas.
Since the development of the South was carried out at the expense of funds coming from the North, the stronger partner dictated its terms of the game, and the model of dependent development of the southern regions was preserved. The South developed in the interests of the North. Contemporaries stated that southern Italians “cannot shake the feeling that everything is always decided outside the South, behind the backs of its population and local government institutions.”
Huge financial expenditures on the “southern policy” over 40 years have brought rather modest results. The gap in the standard of living of the population was reduced by only 10%; many families continue to exist due to remittances from emigrated relatives. High rates of population growth do not allow solving the employment problem. The difficulties of overcoming the historically established territorial dualism are also associated with the fact that the redistribution of capital investments from the North to the South cannot increase indefinitely; the North itself needs funds. Due to this circumstance, reducing the gap between North and South in the foreseeable historical period seems problematic.
There was another problem associated with the South—agrarian. That's why the most important measure The government of the Christian Democratic Party was an agrarian reform, which was preceded by an unprecedented movement of peasants and tenants to seize the empty lands of large landowners. Under pressure from the mass movement, the Christian Democratic government, in accordance with Article 44 of the constitution, adopted an agrarian reform law in 1950, which was based on the draft of the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry A. Segni. According to the law, about 8 thousand large landowners had to sell their surplus land to the state. The fund created in this way also received land plots some large companies and state lands. Subsequently, land from this fund was sold by lot to needy peasants in installments for 30 years. And although the agrarian reform could not satisfy all landless and land-poor peasants, a considerable part of them (about 200 thousand) improved their situation.
The foreign policy of the Christian Democrats was based on the priority of the values of Western civilization and was focused on the United States. Italy participated in the creation of NATO; military formations and NATO headquarters were located on its territory. The Italian government signed an agreement on mutual defense assistance with the United States, under which the American side supplied weapons to Italy, and the Italian side transferred naval and air force bases to the United States for use. The leftist opposition, mainly socialists and communists, criticized the pro-American foreign policy course of the Christian Democratic Party.
The Christian Democratic Party, which occupied a centrist position in the political establishment of Italy, combined in its government course both elements of social conservatism and measures of social maneuvering. Under the pressure of mass protests, the Christian Democratic Party sometimes made concessions to workers on issues related to the social sphere. At the same time, in a number of cases, the government’s response to these protests was reprisals against demonstrators and repression, in which motorized police units (chelere) were especially zealous. This contributed to the accumulation of opposition potential. At the next parliamentary elections in 1953. The Christian Democratic Party was unable to cross the 50% mark. De Gasperi resigned and died a year later. The departure of De Gasperi could not but affect the political line of this party. Other people were striving for power. In the Christian Democratic Party, the influence of the right wing (Gasperists) weakened and the left movement strengthened, proposing a coalition with the socialists. However, in general, the centrist faction prevailed, led by the political secretary of the Christian Democratic Party, Amintore Fanfani, who formed governments several times in the 50s, 60s and 80s.
Chapter 2. 1963-1976.
2 .1. "Left Center".
Significant progress in development national economy during the period of the “economic miracle” of the 50s and early 60s, as well as the predominant influence of the Christian Democratic Party in political life, led to a revision of the political course of other parties in Italy, primarily its left parties - the ISP and the IKR. The leadership of the ISP, led by Pietro Nenni, evolved to the right: having abandoned the status of an opposition party, it set a course for coming to power and stopped collaborating with the communists. The Communist Party adopted the strategy of the “Italian path to socialism,” which meant an active mass struggle against monopolies, attracting all anti-monopoly forces to its side and a gradual, peaceful transition to socialism. The Christian Democratic Party took into account the great weight of left-wing parties in society and the growth of their electorate. Intending to “tame” the ISP, which was striving for power, and to use the support of the Social Democrats (ISDP), the Christian Democratic Party outlined a rapprochement with them – a “left center” strategy in order to strengthen its position in society. Left-centreism implied not only the cooperation of the Christian Democratic Party with left-wing parties in parliament and government, but also the acceptance by Christian Democrats of some of the demands of left-wing parties (except the Communist Party). The strategy of the left center as an alliance with “secular” parties was calculated by the Christian Democrats for the long term. Moreover, Pope John XXIII, who replaced the deceased reactionary Pius XII (1958), did not actually interfere with the approval of the new strategy of the Christian Democrats. John XXIII's encyclical Patzem in Terris (Peace on Earth) called for peace and cooperation among different political movements. In the intensified struggle between renovationists and conservatives over the problem of adapting the church to the mood of the masses, the renovationists gained the upper hand. This was demonstrated by the decisions of the Ecumenical Council (“brainchild” of John XXIII), the first session took place in the fall of 1962, the second a year later.
In turn, frequent government crises meant that the “era” of CDA monopoly rule was coming to an end. In 1962, the congress of the Christian Democratic Republic approved the strategy of the left center, and the Christian Democrat A. Fanfani made the first attempt to implement it, forming a government of representatives of the Christian Democratic Party, Social Democrats and Republicans. Since 1963, the Italian Socialist Party began to participate in center-left governments. At the head of these governments in 1963-1968 and 1974-1976. stood the famous Italian politician Aldo Moro, a Christian Democrat, a supporter of cooperation with left-wing parties, a man of strong moral principles, not involved in a single dirty scandal. A. Moreau (1916-1978) graduated from the university with a degree in jurisprudence, became a doctor in legal philosophy, and participated in the war. A deeply religious man, Moreau worked in the Youth Federation of University Catholics, then in the Christian Democratic Party. Having started his political career early, largely due to his high intellectual potential and such qualities as perseverance, patience, flexibility and correctness, he became a politician of major scale, a party leader of the level of De Gasperi. Moro's merit should be recognized for the change in the strategy of the Christian Democratic Party: from centrism under De Gasperi to center-left under Moro. Realizing that due to the considerable authority of the Italians of the left parties, including the communists, without their participation it is impossible to solve any more or less major national problems, Aldo Moro, despite the open resistance of the conservative part of the Christian Democratic Party, became a supporter of cooperation not only with the socialists, but and with the communists. While remaining a patriot of Christian democracy, he was convinced that the Christian Democratic Party should under no circumstances lose its political hegemony.
Making the US a leading world power. The war led to dramatic shifts in the balance of power in the world. The United States not only suffered little in the war, but also received significant profits. The country has increased coal and oil production, electricity generation, and steel production. The basis for this economic recovery was large military orders from the government. The USA has taken a leading position in the world economy. A factor ensuring the economic, scientific and technical hegemony of the United States was the import of ideas and specialists from other countries. Already on the eve and during the war, many scientists emigrated to the United States. After the war, it was taken out of Germany large number German specialists and scientific and technical documentation. The military situation contributed to the development of agriculture. There was great demand for food and raw materials in the world, which created a favorable situation in the agricultural market even after 1945. The explosions became a terrible demonstration of the increased power of the United States atomic bombs in the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1945, President G. Truman openly said that the burden of responsibility for the continued leadership of the world fell on America. At the beginning of the Cold War, the United States came up with the concepts of “containing” and “throwing back” communism, aimed against the USSR. US military bases cover a large part of the world. The advent of peacetime did not stop government intervention in the economy. Despite praise for free enterprise, economic development after Roosevelt's New Deal was no longer conceivable without the regulatory role of the state. Under state control, the transition of industry to peaceful lines was carried out. A program for the construction of roads, power plants, etc. was implemented. The Presidential Council of Economic Advisers provided recommendations to government agencies. Social programs from Roosevelt's New Deal era were retained. The new policy was called "fair course". Along with this, measures were taken to restrict the rights of trade unions (the Taft-Hartley Act). At the same time, on the initiative of the senator J. McCarthy persecution began against people accused of “anti-American activities” (McCarthyism). Many people became victims of the witch hunt, including such famous people as Charles Chaplin. As part of this policy, the build-up of weapons, including nuclear weapons, continued. The formation of the military-industrial complex (MIC), in which the interests of officials, the top of the army and the military industry were united, is being completed.
50-60s XX century were generally favorable for the development of the economy; its rapid growth occurred, associated primarily with the introduction of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution. During these years, the country achieved great success in the struggle of the black (African-American) population for their rights. Protests led by M.L King, led to the prohibition of racial segregation. By 1968, laws were passed to ensure equal rights for blacks. However, achieving real equality turned out to be much more difficult than legal equality; influential forces resisted this, which was expressed in the murder of Quing.
Other changes were also carried out in the social sphere.
Became president in 1961 J. Kennedy pursued a policy of “new frontiers” aimed at creating a society of “general welfare” (elimination of inequality, poverty, crime, prevention of nuclear war). Powerfully important social laws were passed to facilitate the poor's access to education, health care, etc.
In the late 60s - early 70s. xx century The US situation is getting worse.
This was due to the escalation of the Vietnam War, which ended in the largest defeat in US history, as well as the global economic crisis of the early 70s of the twentieth century. These events became one of the factors leading to the policy of détente: under President R. Nixon The first arms limitation treaties were concluded between the USA and the USSR.
In the early 80s of the twentieth century. a new economic crisis began.
Under these conditions, the President R. Reagan proclaimed a policy called the "conservative revolution." Social spending on education, medicine, pensions was reduced, but taxes were also reduced. The United States has taken a course towards developing free enterprise and reducing the role of the state in the economy. This course caused many protests, but contributed to an improvement in the economy. Reagan advocated increasing the arms race, but in the late 80s of the twentieth century. At the proposal of the leader of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev, the process of a new arms reduction began. It accelerated in an environment of unilateral concessions from the USSR.
The collapse of the USSR and the entire socialist camp contributed to the longest period of economic growth in the United States in the 90s. XX century under the president at Clinton's. The United States has become the only center of power in the world and has begun to claim global leadership. True, at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries. The economic situation in the country has worsened. Terrorist attacks have become a serious test for the United States 11 September 2001 Terrorist attacks in New York and Washington cost the lives of more than 3 thousand people.
Leading countries of Western Europe.
Second world war undermined the economies of all European countries. Enormous efforts had to be spent on its restoration. The painful phenomena in these countries were caused by the collapse of the colonial system and the loss of colonies. Thus, for Great Britain, the results of the war, according to W. Churchill, became “a triumph and a tragedy.” England has finally become the “junior partner” of the United States. By the beginning of the 60s of the twentieth century. England lost almost all of its colonies. A serious problem since the 70s. XX century became the armed struggle in Northern Ireland. The British economy could not revive for a long time after the war, until the early 50s. XX century The card system was maintained. The Laborites who came to power after the war nationalized a number of industries and expanded social programs. Gradually, the economic situation improved. In the 5060s. XX century there was intense economic growth. However, the crises of 1974-1975 and 1980-1982. caused great damage to the country. The Conservative government that came to power in 1979, led by M. Thatcher defended the “true values of British society.” In practice, this resulted in the privatization of the public sector, reduction of government regulation and encouragement of private enterprise, reduction of taxes and social spending. In France, after World War II, under the influence of the communists, who sharply increased their authority during the years of the fight against fascism, a number of large industries were nationalized, and the property of German collaborators was confiscated. The social rights and guarantees of the people have expanded. In 1946, a new constitution was adopted, establishing the regime of the Fourth Republic. However, foreign policy events (wars in Vietnam, Algeria) made the situation in the country extremely unstable.
On the wave of discontent in 1958, a general came to power C. de Gaulle. He held a referendum that adopted a new constitution that dramatically expanded the powers of the president. The period of the Fifth Republic began. Charles de Gaulle managed to solve a number of pressing problems: the French left Indochina, all colonies in Africa received freedom. Initially, de Gaulle tried to use military force to retain Algeria, which was the homeland of a million French, for France. However, the escalation of hostilities and increased repression against participants in the national liberation war only led to an increase in Algerian resistance. In 1962, Algeria gained independence, and most of the French from there fled to France. An attempt at a military coup by forces opposed to leaving Algeria was suppressed in the country. From the mid-60s of the twentieth century. France's foreign policy became more independent, it left the NATO military organization, and an agreement was concluded with the USSR.
At the same time, the economic situation improved. However, contradictions in the country persisted, which led to mass protests by students and workers in 1968. Under the influence of these protests, de Gaulle resigned in 1969. His successor J Pompidou maintained the same political course. In the 70s XX century The economic situation has become less stable. In the 1981 presidential elections, the leader of the Socialist Party was elected F. Mitterrand. After the Socialists won the parliamentary elections, they formed their own government (with the participation of the Communists). A number of reforms were carried out in the interests of broad sections of the population (shortening working hours, increasing vacations), the rights of trade unions were expanded, and a number of industries were nationalized. However, emerging economic problems forced the government to take the path of austerity. The role of right-wing parties, with whose governments Mitterrand was supposed to cooperate, increased, and reforms were suspended. A serious problem was the strengthening of nationalist sentiments in France due to the massive influx of emigrants into the country. The sentiments of SUPPORTERS of the slogan “France for the French” are expressed by the National Front led by J - M. Le Lenom, who at times gets significant number votes. The influence of leftist forces has declined. In the 1995 elections, the right-wing Gaullist politician became president F Chirac.
After the emergence of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949, its government was headed by the leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) Adenauer, who remained in power until 1960. He pursued a policy of creating a socially oriented market economy with a significant role of government regulation. After the completion of the period of economic recovery, the development of the German economy proceeded at a very rapid pace, facilitated by US assistance. Germany has become an economically powerful power. In political life there was a struggle between the CDU and the Social Democrats. At the end of the 60s. XX century A government dominated by Social Democrats led by V. Brandtom. Many changes were carried out in the interests of the general population. In foreign policy, Brandt normalized relations with the USSR, Poland, and the GDR. However, the economic crises of the 70s. xx century led to a worsening of the country's situation. In 1982, the leader of the CDU came to power G. Kohl. His government reduced government regulation of the economy and carried out privatization. Favorable conditions contributed to an increase in the pace of development. The reunification of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic took place. by the end of the 90s. xx century new financial and economic problems arose. In 1998, the Social Democrats led by G. Schroeder.
In the mid-70s. XX century The last authoritarian regimes in Europe have disappeared. In 1974, the military carried out a coup in Portugal, overthrowing the dictatorial regime A. Salazar. Democratic reforms were carried out, a number of leading industries were nationalized, and independence was granted to the colonies. In Spain after the death of the dictator F. Franco in 1975 the restoration of democracy began. The democratization of society was supported by King Juan Carlos 1. Over time, significant successes were achieved in the economy, and the standard of living of the population increased. After the end of World War II, a civil war broke out in Greece (1946-1949) between pro-communist and pro-Western forces, supported by England and the United States. It ended in the defeat of the communists. In 1967, a military coup took place in the country and the regime of “black colonels” was established. While limiting democracy, the “black colonels” at the same time expanded social support population. The regime's attempt to annex Cyprus led to its fall in 1974.
European integration. In the second half of the twentieth century. There have been trends towards integration of countries in many regions, especially in Europe. Back in 1949, the Council of Europe came into being. In 1957, 6 countries led by France and Germany signed the Treaty of Rome to create the European Economic Community (EEC) - a Common Market that removed customs barriers. In the 70s - 80s. xx century the number of EEC members increased to 12. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held. In 1991, as a result of long negotiations and decades of rapprochement between the EEC countries, documents on monetary, economic and political unions were signed in the Dutch city of Maastricht. In 1995, the EEC, which already included 15 states, was transformed into the European Union (EU). Since 2002, a single currency, the euro, was finally introduced in 12 EU countries, which strengthened the economic positions of these countries in the fight against the United States and Japan. The treaties provide for the expansion of the EU's supranational powers. The main policy directions will be determined by the European Council. Decisions require the consent of 8 out of 12 countries. The creation of a single European government cannot be ruled out in the future.
Japan. The Second World War had dire consequences for Japan - economic destruction, loss of colonies, occupation. Under pressure from the United States, the Japanese emperor agreed to limit his power. In 1947, a Constitution was adopted that expanded democratic rights and consolidated the peaceful status of the country (military expenditures according to the Constitution cannot exceed 1% of all budget expenditures). The right-wing Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) is almost always in power in Japan. Japan managed to restore its economy very quickly. Since the 50s XX century its sharp rise begins, called the Japanese “economic miracle”. This “miracle” was, in addition to a favorable environment, based on the peculiarities of the organization of the economy and the mentality of the Japanese, as well as a small share of military expenditures. The hard work, unpretentiousness, and corporate-community traditions of the population allowed the Japanese economy to compete successfully. A course was set for the development of knowledge-intensive industries that made Japan a leader in the production of electronics. Nevertheless, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. There are significant problems in Japan. Corruption-related scandals around the LDP flared up more and more often. The rate of economic growth has slowed down, competition from the “newly industrialized countries” (South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia), as well as China, has increased. China also poses a military threat to Japan.
I . Testing.
1. The split of Germany into 2 states occurred:
A) in 1945; B) in 1946; B) in 1948;D) in 1949
2. The American program of post-war assistance to European countries was called:
A) the Truman Doctrine; B) Monroe Doctrine;B) Marshall Plan; D) "new course".
3. 1950-1953 are the years:
A) Vietnam War;B) the war in Korea; B) the war in Afghanistan; D) the years of the Cold War.
4. The United Nations was created in:
A) April 25 – June 26, 1945; B) January 17 – March 23, 1946;
B) May 12 – June 23, 1947; D) February 1 – March 29, 1949;
5. What policies did M. Thatcher pursue as head of parliament?
A) strict restrictions on government spending; B) providing benefits to small business entrepreneurs;
B) proposed a “third way” of development; D) construction of cheap housing
6.What were the views of President Viscari d Estaing?
A) liberal; B) right-wing conservative; B) socialist; D) nationalistic.
7. A feature of the Italian party-political system is:
A) frequent change of political parties;
B) the dominant position of the Christian Democratic Party;
B) a strong coalition between the Christian Democratic Party and the Socialist Party;
D) the dominant position of the Socialist Party;
8. What force did the Labor governments in Great Britain have the support of?
A) small and medium-sized entrepreneurs;
B) active part labor force and trade unions;
B) large industrial bourgeoisie;
D) peasantry and agricultural workers.
9. Which of the following tasks becomes the main one for the state in the context of globalization?
A) pursuing a policy of protectionism in the interests of the national economy;
B) ensuring the international competitiveness of the country;
C) reducing costs for the social network;
D) carrying out the nationalization of industrial production;
10. Mass demonstrations by the French in May 1968 indicate:
A) the maturation of situations leading to revolution;
B) the collapse of the traditional value system;
C) about the intensification of the activities of terrorist groups;
D) worsening economic situation of the country.
11. The Italian “economic miracle” is called:
A) a dynamic leap in the development of the Italian economy;
B) stabilization of the Italian economy
C) the development of Italy according to plan;
D) way out of the crisis at the expense of Italian entrepreneurs.
12. The confrontation between the “Western” and “Eastern” blocs, which lasted from the mid-1940s. until the mid-1980s, was named:
A) " undeclared war"; B) “policy of containment”;
B) “nuclear dialogue”;D) "Cold War".
13. Referendum on a state issue. The structure of Italy (monarchy or republic) took place in:
A) 1943; B) 1945; B) 1946; D) 1954
14. The reason for the Italian economic miracle of the 50-60s. XX century is:
A) the presence of rich mineral deposits;
B) powerful industry in the south of the country;
C) cheap labor and the introduction of advanced technologies into production ;
D) an increase in military orders from the state.
15. Operation Clean Hands in 1992 in Italy revealed:
A) massive violations in food industry;
B) connection between the mafia and the state. apparatus on an alarming scale;
C) unfair competition in the textile industry;
D) fixed football matches.
16. Victory in the 1994 elections. in Italy won:
A) Communist Party of Italy; B) Socialist Party of Italy;
B) “Forward, Italy!” (movement of S. Berlusconi); D) Christian Democratic Party of Italy.
17. “New Eastern Policy” is associated with the name:
A) V. Brandt; B) K. Adenauer; B) G. Kolya; D) G. Schroeder.
18. The main rivals in politics in Germany are the parties:
A) Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Greens;
B) CDU and Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD);
B) SPD and NSDAP;
D) CDU and communists.
19. The most influential political force in Ulster:
A) Sinn Fein ; B) IRA; B) Unionists; D) Republicans.
20. A new round of the arms race in the late 70s is associated with:
A) With the introduction of troops into Afghanistan ;
B) With military support for Vietnam in the fight against the United States;
B) With the introduction of troops into Czechoslovakia;
D) With military support from India in the fight against England.
II . Give a name, term, concept.
1. Complete the sentence: “The military, economic, political and ideological confrontation between the two systems, most clearly expressed in the creation of military-political blocs, the arms race, mutual threats, the struggle for spheres of influence in various regions of the world, crises that have repeatedly brought humanity to the brink of a new one.” world war is called..."
2. This term was first used by former British Prime Minister W. Churchill during a trip to the USA, in a speech on March 5, 1946 in Fulton. Describing the situation in Europe, Churchill said that “this is not the Europe for which we fought during the war. He fell over her...” This term was often used in Western journalism to show their attitude towards a particular country of socialism or the entire social system. the camp as a whole. What term are we talking about?
3. Who are we talking about?
During her premiership, she actively fought against influence, which, in her opinion, negatively affected parliamentary democracy and economic results due to regular strikes. Her first term as prime minister was marked by a number of strikes organized by part of the trade unions in response to new legislation that limited their powers. In in
4. Determine the name of the organization (one answer):
1) a military-political alliance created at the initiative of the United States;
2) headquarters, located in Brussels;
3) created in 1949;
4) has a contingent of peacekeeping forces.
Answer: NATO
5. Define a term (one term):
1) scientific or philosophical theory;
2) political system;
3) a set of principles;
4) a guiding principle, either theoretical or political.
Answer: doctrine
III . Choose several correct answers.
1. Which 3 organizations from the following are associated with the process of European economic integration?
A) North American Free Trade Agreement;
B) European Economic Community (EEC);
B) International Monetary Fund;
D) European Coal and Steel Community;
D) European Free Trade Association;
E) Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
Answer: 1) ABC 2) BVD 3) GD 4) AGE
2. The political regime of the Fifth Republic in France is characterized by:
A) strengthening the power of the president;
C) strengthening the power of parliament;
D) parliamentary presidential elections.
Answer. 1) AB 2) BV 3) VG 4) AG.
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From the book History of Indonesia Part 1 author Bandilenko Gennady GeorgievichChapter 6 INDONESIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XVIII - BEGINNING OF THE XIX centuries. DUTCH COLONIAL POSSESSIONS IN THE OIC CRISIS. PERIOD OF DOMINANCE
From the book History of the Tver Region author Vorobiev Vyacheslav Mikhailovich§§ 45-46. CULTURE OF THE TVER REGION IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH - EARLY 20TH CENTURIES Significant changes have occurred in the education system. Created at the beginning of the century, the Tver men's gymnasium became a school in the 1860s. be called classical. Much attention was paid to the study
From the book Altai Spiritual Mission in 1830–1919: structure and activities author Kreidun GeorgyChapter 3 Monasteries of the Altai spiritual mission in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. The structure of monastic institutions in Altai at the beginning of the twentieth century covered a fairly vast territory, currently located within four constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
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Socialist camp, a term that after the Second World War 1939-1945. In the USSR, states were designated that followed the path of building socialism. It included the USSR and the states of Eastern Europe, in which the communists established themselves in power, China after the completion of civil war(1949), then North Korea and North Vietnam. The confrontation between the two camps (socialism and capitalism) was considered as the most important feature of world development. Socialist camp The term “socialist camp” gradually fell out of use, especially after the deterioration of Soviet-Chinese and Soviet-Albanian relations. It was replaced by the terms “socialist community”, “world socialist system”. Socialist countries included Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, East Germany, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia.
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As a result of World War II, Poland lost almost 40% of its national wealth and more than 6 million people. From the late 1940s to the late 1980s, the Polish economy was organized according to the Soviet model, characterized by central planning and state ownership of the means of production. Economic growth in the years immediately after World War II, despite significant depletion of resources, it occurred at an accelerated pace. The government limited individual consumption to support high level capital investments. Unlike Soviet Union and other countries of Eastern Europe, general collectivization was not carried out in Poland. Agriculture was the main source of livelihood for 35% of the population. Manufacturing and mining industries gradually grew in importance, and in the late 1970s these industries accounted for half of the country's national income and a third of all jobs. The situation of Poland after World War II
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Political figures August Zaleski. He served as President of Poland from June 7, 1947 to April 7, 1972. He was proclaimed president in exile. When the 7-year reign came to an end, Zaleski extended his powers indefinitely. Because of this, many political figures in Poland stopped their contacts with him. Shortly before his death, Zaleski appointed Stanislav Ostrovsky as his successor. Stanislaw Ostrovsky is the exiled President of Poland. He served in office from April 8, 1972 to April 8, 1979. After his term ended, he appointed Edward Rachinsky as his successor. Edward Raczynski served as president for 7 years from April 8, 1972 to April 8, 1979.
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Crisis in Poland in the 1980s In the 1980s, the government relaxed control over the activities of enterprises. At the same time, enterprises continued to insist on government subsidies and other forms of support. The authorities, unable to finance a higher level of spending from tax revenues, were forced to resort to emissions. As a result, the government of T. Mazowiecki, which came to power in September 1989, was faced with a huge budget deficit and rapidly growing inflation. In the 80s of the 20th century, the countries of Eastern Europe, including Poland, experienced an economic crisis. The Polish government began to take action. Minister of Economy L. Balcerowicz developed a strategy for economic reforms, which consisted of two stages. During the first phase, implemented in the fall of 1989, the government established control over the budget and corrected some price imbalances, created a system of unemployment benefits, and developed a legal basis for bankruptcy proceedings. The second stage began on January 1, 1990 and included a sharp reduction in the budget deficit
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Revolutions in Poland In 1980, the People's Republic of Poland was gripped by a new, longest and most acute political crisis. In the summer, a wave of strikes swept through the country, workers in port cities moved to create "free" trade unions. The most widespread was the Independent Trade Union "Solidarity", headed by an electrician. LVa-Lensa. Cells of "Solidarity" began to form throughout the country. Already in the fall of 1980, the number of its members exceeded 9 million people. An independent trade union, supported by one influential in Polish society Catholic Church, turned into a powerful democratic socio-political movement, actively opposed the PUWP regime. The next change of party leadership did not stabilize the situation in the country. The Soviet leadership, frightened by the prospect of democratic forces coming to power in Poland, threatened military intervention in Polish affairs according to the Czechoslovak scenario of 1968. On December 13, 1981, martial law was introduced in Poland: the activities of all opposition organizations were banned
