Pavlov studied conditioned reflex activity in dogs. The animal was placed in special straps, and the fistula was suspended from the salivary gland. The experimenter sat separately. The condition is absolute silence. The experiment was carried out on intact animals, that is, they should not have been exposed to any extraneous stimuli. The unconditioned stimulus acted as a conditioned stimulus. Two stimuli:
The main mechanism for the formation of the conditional is the establishment of a temporary connection between the conditional and the unconditional. This is the connection between the centers of the brain responsible for the unconditioned and the centers associated with the conditioned stimulus. Conditioned reflex connection is the establishment of impulse activity of neurons that is formed between these centers.
- this is an acquired response of the body to irritation with the direct participation of the higher department, i.e. cerebral cortex.
For the formation of a conditioned reflex, the following conditions are necessary:
An indifferent stimulus, light, causes excitation in the visual center of the cortex. However, the salivary center is dominant (because the dog is hungry) and it attracts stimulation from the visual center. A connection is established between them. After repeated combination, the salivary center is excited in response to light. If the unconditioned stimulus precedes the indifferent UR, it will not be formed. If the indifferent stimulus is too strong, it will cause inhibition in all centers and the UR will not be formed.
The physiological basis for the emergence of conditioned reflexes is the formation of temporary connections in the most reactive formations of the central nervous system - in its higher parts. A temporary connection is a set of neurophysiological, biochemical and ultrastructural changes in the brain that arise during the combined action of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Initially, Pavlov suggested that during a conditioned reflex, a temporary neural connection is formed between two groups of cortical cells - the cortical representations of the conditioned and subcortical unconditioned reflexes. Then the idea was put forward that conditioned closure occurs in the cortex between the cortical end of the signal analyzer and the cortical link of the complex unconditional center. The hypothesis about the cortical mechanism of temporary connection closure was further developed in the analysis of the mechanisms of convergence of excitations on individual neurons of the cerebral cortex (P.K. Anokhin).
Modern ideas about ways to close temporary connections:
If the intensity of stimulation of the receptors reaches threshold or suprathreshold strength in various reflexogenic zones, excitation occurs in them, which, spreading through the sensory nerves, enters the central nervous system and causes a reflex response.
Reflex excitation that occurs in any reflexogenic zone is addressed from the centers of sensory nerves not to all, but to strictly defined effector (motor or secretory) nerve centers. In unconditioned reflexes, this connection between sensitive and effector centers is innate.
Conditioned reflexes are characterized by the fact that each stimulus (light, sound, proprioceptive, etc.) can, under certain conditions, acquire a signal value and become a stimulus that causes a special response of the body: motor, secretory, food, defensive, etc. For example, if an indifferent stimulus - the sound of a bell is combined with the effect of food on the reflexogenic zone of the unconditioned salivary reflex, then after several combinations the excitation arising in the auditory sensitive center will spread to the efferent centers of salivation (Fig. 62). The environment of sports competitions, repeatedly combined with physical exercise, can also become a conditioned stimulus, i.e. a signal that causes a change in heart rate, blood pressure, metabolic rate, etc. Changes in physiological functions in the body observed in the starting state , are examples of conditioned reflexes formed by combining the influence of the stadium environment with the performance of physical exercises in competition conditions.
Information recorded in long-term memory can be retained for days, weeks, months and even many years. But such transfer of information to long-term memory does not always occur. For example, if you tell a person an unfamiliar seven-digit phone number, then in most cases he can repeat it correctly. But after a few minutes (especially a few tens of minutes) this number is forgotten. The transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term memory can be artificially stopped by appropriate influences on the central nervous system. So, if. When a conditioned reflex is initially formed, anesthesia is given immediately after its development, then the previously formed conditioned reflex disappears after the anesthesia is removed. If such anesthesia is given several hours or days after the formation of a conditioned reflex connection, then the reflex is preserved.
It is believed that the fixation of information is associated with long-term (tens of minutes) reverberation (from the Latin reverberare - to reflect), i.e., with the circulation of excitation along neural circuits. Anesthesia stops reverberation. Therefore, if after 5-20 minutes. After developing a conditioned reflex, give anesthesia, then the duration of reverberation turns out to be less than necessary. This prevents the fixation of information in long-term memory structures. Apparently, the structures associated with the fixation of short-term and long-term memory are different.
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Basic conditions for the formation of conditioned reflexes. Conditioned reflexes are well formed only under certain conditions. The most important of them are: 1) repeated combination of the action of a previously indifferent conditioned stimulus with the action of a reinforcing unconditioned or previously well-developed conditioned stimulus; 2) some precedence in time of the action of the indifferent agent to the action of the reinforcing stimulus; 3) vigorous state of the body; 4) absence of other types of active activity; 5) a sufficient degree of excitability of an unconditional or well-fixed conditioned reinforcing stimulus; 6) suprathreshold intensity of the conditioned stimulus.
The coincidence of the action of an indifferent stimulus with the action of a reinforcing stimulus (an unconditioned or previously well-established conditioned stimulus) must, as a rule, be repeated several times. When new conditioned reflexes are formed in the same environment, the process of formation of these reflexes accelerates. For example, in a dog in experiments in a chamber, the first conditioned reflex is formed after 10-20 combinations, while subsequent ones are much faster. In humans, many conditioned reflexes, especially to verbal stimuli, can be formed after one combination.
The duration of time preceding the action of a new conditioned stimulus to the action of a reinforcer should not be significant. Thus, in dogs, reflexes are especially well developed when this preceding time lasts 5-10 seconds. When combined in the reverse order, when the reinforcing stimulus begins to act earlier than the indifferent one, the conditioned reflex is not developed.
The formation of conditioned reflex connections, which easily occurs in a vigorous state of the body, becomes difficult when it is inhibited. Thus, in animals that are in a drowsy state, conditioned reflexes are either not formed at all, or are formed slowly and with difficulty. The inhibited state makes it difficult for humans to form conditioned reflexes.
When centers not associated with the formation of these conditioned reflexes dominate in the central nervous system, the formation of these reflexes becomes difficult. So, if a dog experiences sudden excitement, for example, at the sight of a cat, then under these conditions the formation of a food salivary reflex to the sound of a bell or the light of a light bulb does not occur. In a person absorbed in some activity, the formation of conditioned reflexes to other types of activity at this time is also greatly hampered.
Conditioned reflexes are formed only if there is sufficient excitability of the centers of these reinforcing reflexes. For example, when developing conditioned food reflexes in dogs, experiments are carried out under conditions of high excitability of the food center (the animal is in a hungry state).
The emergence and consolidation of a conditioned reflex connection occurs at a certain level of excitation of the nerve centers. In this regard, the strength of the conditioned signal must be sufficient - above the threshold, but not excessive. To weak stimuli, conditioned reflexes are not developed at all or are formed slowly and are unstable. Excessively strong stimuli cause the development of protective (extraordinary) inhibition in nerve cells, which also complicates or eliminates the possibility of the formation of conditioned reflexes.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) plays a large role in the processes of information recording. In experiments on rats, it was shown that the use of drugs that cause a decrease in the content of RNA in nervous tissue leads to a significant decrease in the effectiveness of learning, i.e., the development of conditioned reflexes.
In lower animals, the formation of conditioned reflexes can be carried out through the subcortical parts of the brain - the cerebellum (fish), striatum (birds), etc.
In mammals and humans, the most important role in the formation of conditioned reflex connections belongs to the cerebral cortex. But at the same time, connections between conditioned reflex centers are carried out both through intercortical pathways (i.e., between different zones of the cerebral cortex) and through pathways connecting the cortex with various sub-reflex formations (reticular formation, etc.) . Thus, after removal of the cerebral hemispheres in dogs, only the simplest conditioned reflexes are preserved and can be formed. They are developed very slowly, are fragile and lack purposefulness. The latter manifests itself, for example, in the development of erratic motor activity in response to a conditioned signal (E. S. Asratyan, M. M. Khananashvili, N. Yu. Belenkov, etc.).
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In the formation of operant conditioned reactions, the most important role is played by the feedback between cells in the nerve centers of unconditioned or previously well-developed conditioned reflexes and the cells of the centers of the motor analyzer. This is facilitated by a high level of excitability of motor centers, caused by the flow of afferent impulses from proprioceptors of contracting muscles.
Thus, one of the conditions for the development of operant motor conditioned reflexes is the mandatory inclusion in the system of stimuli of impulses that arise spontaneously or caused by active or passive movement. The formation of these reflexes depends on the nature of the reinforcing agent. Operant conditioning is the basis of motor skills. Their consolidation is facilitated by feedback carried out through the proprioceptors of the muscles performing the movement, and through the receptors of a number of other analyzers. Thanks to this afferentation, the central nervous system signals the results of the movement.
Certain conditions are necessary for the formation of conditioned reflexes.
1. The presence of two stimuli - indifferent and unconditional. This is due to the fact that an adequate stimulus will cause an unconditioned reflex, and on its basis a conditioned one will be developed. An indifferent stimulus extinguishes the orienting reflex. In this case, any innervated organ can act as an effector link in the reflex arc of a conditioned reflex. Any function can be enhanced or suppressed as a result of the formation of an appropriate conditioned reflex.
2. A certain combination in time of two stimuli. First, the indifferent one should turn on, and then the unconditional one, and the intermediate time should be constant.
3. A certain combination of strength of two stimuli. Indifferent is threshold, and unconditional is superthreshold.
4. The usefulness of the central nervous system.
5. Lack of extraneous irritants.
6. Repeated repetition of the action of stimuli to create a dominant focus of excitation.
The mechanism of formation of conditioned reflexes is based on the principle of the formation of a temporary nervous connection in the cerebral cortex.
Temporary connection is a set of neurophysiological, biochemical and ultrastructural changes in the brain that occur during the combined action of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. There are several options for creating a temporary connection. Firstly, excitation from the center of the conditioned reflex can be transmitted to the center of the unconditioned reflex from neuron to neuron (interneuronal pathway). Secondly, the transmission of excitation can be carried out through the associative fibers of the cortex.
I. P. Pavlov believed that a temporary nervous connection is formed between the cerebral part of the analyzer and the cortical representation of the center of the unconditioned reflex according to the dominant mechanism.
To develop a conditioned reflex, the presence of two stimuli is necessary. One of them is an unconditioned stimulus, which causes an unconditioned reflex reaction (food, painful stimulus, etc.); this stimulus is a reinforcement of the conditioned reflex reaction. The second stimulus - conditioned (signal) - will signal unconditional stimulation (light, sound, type of food, etc.). Under the influence of stimuli (conditioned and unconditioned), two foci of excitation are formed in the zone of the cortical representation of the conditioned stimulus and the cortical (or subcortical) representation of the unconditioned stimulus. After several coincidences of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, a stable path of excitation movement arises between these two zones: from the focus caused by the conditioned stimulus to the focus caused by the unconditioned stimulus. As a result, isolated exposure to only the conditioned stimulus causes a response caused by the previously unconditioned stimulus.
Basic conditions for the formation of conditioned reflexes .
Conditioned reflexes are well formed only under certain conditions. The most important of them are:
1) Repeated combination of the action of a previously indifferent conditioned stimulus with the action of a reinforcing unconditional or previously well-developed conditioned stimulus;
2) Some precedence in time of the action of the indifferent agent to the action of the reinforcing stimulus;
3) Vigorous state of the body;
4) Lack of other types of vigorous activity;
5) A sufficient degree of excitability of an unconditional or well-fixed conditioned reinforcing stimulus;
6) Suprathreshold intensity of the conditioned stimulus.
Conditioned reflexes are formed only if there is sufficient excitability of the centers of these reinforcing reflexes. For example, when developing conditioned food reflexes in dogs, experiments are carried out under conditions of high excitability of the food center (the animal is in a hungry state).
The emergence and consolidation of a conditioned reflex connection occurs at a certain level of excitation of the nerve centers. In this regard, the strength of the conditioned signal must be sufficient - above the threshold, but not excessive. To weak stimuli, conditioned reflexes are not developed at all or are formed slowly and are unstable. Excessively strong stimuli cause the development of protective (extraordinary) inhibition in nerve cells, which also complicates or eliminates the possibility of the formation of conditioned reflexes.
Methods for developing conditioned reflexes .
The method of developing conditioned reflexes is a system of combinations and exercises in a certain operating mode, taking into account the individual characteristics of the dog.
When training service dogs, the method of developing conditioned reflexes is somewhat different from the Pavlovian method.
Firstly, ready-made behavioral reactions of varying complexity are used to develop conditioned reflexes.
Secondly, the development of conditioned reflexes is complicated by the creation of different conditions and a wide variety of stimuli used in order to form stable dynamic skills in the dog.
Thirdly, the need for rapid development of skills and reliability of their manifestation requires the inclusion of additional factors of activation and stimulation, called reinforcements.
The components and basic principles of the methodology for developing conditioned reflexes when training service dogs are:
1. Determination and practical application of the optimal system of combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli in the development of the initial conditioned reflex;
2. Definition and practical application of a rational system of exercises for developing skills;
3. Selection and skillful use of various methods of reinforcing combinations of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned one and the resulting conditioned reflexes;
4. Determination of the working mode in terms of time and strength of the workload in order to develop in the dog a working state that corresponds to the working mode when using the dog in service.
The method of developing conditioned reflexes when training dogs requires the obligatory fulfillment of the conditions necessary for the formation of a conditioned reflex: determining a system of combinations, exercises, methods of reinforcement, work and rest mode in three stages, monitoring the formation of the initial conditioned reflex and the correct formation of the skill.
When developing conditioned reflexes, the interrelations of conditioned reflexes in complex skills and the features of their formation under the influence of stimuli from the environment are taken into account.
Stages of conditioned reflex formation and skill formation .
A conditioned reflex is not formed immediately, but gradually in stages. The formation of a conditioned reflex requires a certain number of combinations and time.
There are three stages of formation of a conditioned reflex :
1. The first stage of generalization, or generalized response action.
At the very beginning of combinations, while a nervous connection is established in the cerebral cortex between two foci of excitation, the conditioned reflex is not reproduced independently.
The appearance of the first reactions to a conditioned stimulus is the beginning of the formation of a conditioned reflex. At first, the formed conditioned reflex as a result of irradiation of excitation manifests itself in a generalized manner both to the conditioned signal and to all stimuli similar to it.
At this stage, the conditioned reflex is easily inhibited, inaccuracy in response to a command or gesture from the trainer is noted, and may not manifest itself at all when conditions or circumstances change.
2. The second stage of concentration, or specialization of the conditioned reflex.
With further repeated repetition of combinations of stimuli, the irradiation of excitation is limited by inhibition, and the excitatory process begins to concentrate in one nerve center. The more the conditioned reflex is consolidated, the less the generalization phenomenon will be, and the specialization of the conditioned reflex to a specific conditioned stimulus occurs.
At this stage, the conditioned reflex begins to manifest itself automatically in the form of an accurate and specific response to the trainer’s command or gesture and does not manifest itself to other stimuli similar to the conditioned one. When conditions and surroundings change, the conditioned reflex is not inhibited.
3. The third stage of stabilization of the conditioned reflex, or formation of a skill.
A skill is formed through repeated repetition of a conditioned reflex in an environment of varying complexity. The automatic manifestation of a reflex to a conditioned stimulus no longer requires constant reinforcement with an unconditioned stimulus.
At this stage, the conditioned reflex turns into a skill and becomes stereotypical. He actively responds to a command or gesture from the trainer in an environment of any complexity.
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Conditioned reflexes
But the behavior of higher animals and humans is characterized not only by innate, i.e., unconditioned reactions, but also by such reactions that are acquired by a given organism in the process of individual life activity, i.e. conditioned reflexes. The biological meaning of the conditioned reflex is that numerous external stimuli that surround the animal in natural conditions and in themselves do not have vital significance, preceding in the animal’s experience food or danger, the satisfaction of other biological needs, begin to act as signals, by which the animal orients its behavior (Fig. 15).
So, the mechanism of hereditary adaptation is an unconditioned reflex, and the mechanism of individual variable adaptation is a conditioned reflex, developed by combining vital phenomena with accompanying signals.
Rice. 15. Scheme of formation of a conditioned reflex
§ a - salivation is caused by an unconditioned stimulus - food;
§ b - excitement from a food stimulus is associated with a previous indifferent stimulus (the light of a light bulb);
§ c - the light of the light bulb became a signal of the possible appearance of food: a conditioned reflex was developed to it
A conditioned reflex is developed on the basis of any of the unconditioned reactions. Reflexes to unusual signals that do not occur in a natural environment are called artificial conditioned. In laboratory conditions, it is possible to develop many conditioned reflexes to any artificial stimulus.
I. P. Pavlov associated with the concept of a conditioned reflex principle of signaling of higher nervous activity, the principle of synthesis of external influences and internal states.
Pavlov's discovery of the basic mechanism of higher nervous activity - the conditioned reflex - became one of the revolutionary achievements of natural science, a historical turning point in the understanding of the connection between the physiological and the mental.
Understanding the dynamics of formation and changes in conditioned reflexes began the discovery of complex mechanisms of human brain activity and the identification of patterns of higher nervous activity.
Mechanisms of formation of a conditioned reflex, its functional basis
Conditioned reflexes are formed when two foci of excitation appear in the cerebral cortex: one in response to the action of a conditioned stimulus, and the other in response to the action of an unconditioned stimulus. When the action of these stimuli is combined, a temporary connection is established between the emerging foci of excitation, which becomes stronger from experience to experience. Such a connection in the cerebral cortex of I.P. Pavlov called it closure and explained to him the mechanism of formation of a conditioned reflex. 
Description of the picture:
a - cortical center of the blink reflex;
b - cortical center of the food reflex;
c, d - subcortical centers of blinking and food reflexes, respectively;
I - direct temporary connection;
II - time feedback
The formation of a temporary connection occurs according to the dominant principle. The source of excitation from an unconditioned stimulus is always stronger than from a conditioned one, since the unconditioned stimulus is always biologically more significant for the animal. This focus of excitation is dominant. A stronger focus of excitation from unconditioned stimulation attracts excitation from the focus of conditioned stimulation. The degree of his excitement will increase.
The dominant focus has the property of a long, stable existence. Consequently, conditioned and unconditioned excitations will interact with each other for a long time.
If the excitation has passed through some nerve centers, then next time it will pass through these paths much easier. This is based, firstly, on the phenomenon of summation of excitations, and secondly, on the phenomenon of “blazing a path”, accompanied by:
1. long-term increase in the excitability of synaptic formations;
1. changes in protein chains, accumulation of RNA, changes in the amount of mediator in synapses, activation of the formation of new synapses.
Consequently, structural prerequisites are created for the movement of excitation along certain paths. Now the excitation from the zone of the cortical representation of the conditioned reflex will go along the beaten path and cause the manifestation of a conditioned reflex reaction.
There is another idea about the mechanism of formation of a temporary connection. This idea is based on the ability of neurons to respond to stimulation from different modalities, i.e., the phenomenon of polysensory convergence. The existence of neurons on which excitations from different analyzers converge allows us to think that the process of establishing temporary connections occurs not due to the unification of different parts of the cortex, but through the integration of excitations at the level of one neuron - cortical neurons can integrate conditioned and unconditioned excitations. Conditioned and unconditioned excitations, reaching neurons, are recorded in them in the form of strong chemical compounds, the formation of which is a mechanism for closing the conditioned reflex connection. This theory of the mechanism of temporary connection closure is called convergent theory.
Stages and mechanism of the conditioned reflex. The process of formation of a classical conditioned reflex goes through three main stages:
1. · The pregeneralization stage is a short-term phase, which is characterized by a pronounced concentration of excitation in the projection zones of the cortex of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and the absence of conditioned behavioral reactions.
2. The stage of generalization, which is based on the process of “diffuse” spread (irradiation) of excitation. This is a phenomenon that occurs in the initial stages of developing a conditioned reflex. The required reaction in this case is caused not only by the reinforced stimulus, but also by others, more or less close to it. During the generalization stage, conditioned reactions occur to signal and other stimuli (the phenomenon of afferent generalization), as well as in the intervals between presentations of the conditioned stimulus.
The initial stage of the formation of a conditioned reflex consists of the formation of a temporary connection not only to this specific conditioned stimulus, but also to all stimuli related to it in nature. The neurophysiological mechanism consists in the irradiation of excitation from the center of the projection of the conditioned stimulus to the nerve cells of the surrounding projection zones, which are functionally close to the cells of the central representation of the conditioned stimulus, to which the conditioned reflex is formed. The farther from the initial initial focus caused by the main stimulus, reinforced by the unconditioned stimulus, the zone covered by the irradiation of excitation is located, the less likely it is to activate this zone. Consequently, at the initial stage of generalization of conditioned excitation, characterized by a generalized generalized reaction, a conditioned reflex response is observed to similar stimuli that are close in meaning as a result of the spread of excitation from the projection zone of the main conditioned stimulus.
1. Specialization stage. As the conditioned stimulus is reinforced, the intersignal reactions fade and the conditioned response occurs only to the signal stimulus. The volume of distribution of biopotentials is decreasing.
As the conditioned reflex strengthens, the processes of irradiation of excitation are replaced by processes of concentration, limiting the focus of excitation only to the zone of representation of the main stimulus. As a result, clarification and specialization of the conditioned reflex occurs. At the final stage of a strengthened conditioned reflex, a concentration of conditioned excitation occurs: the conditioned reflex reaction is observed only to a given stimulus, and to secondary stimuli that are close in meaning - it stops. At the stage of concentration of conditioned excitation, the excitatory process is localized only in the zone of the central representation of the conditioned stimulus (a reaction is realized only to the main stimulus), accompanied by inhibition of the reaction to side stimuli. The external manifestation of this stage is the differentiation of the parameters of the current conditioned stimulus - the specialization of the conditioned reflex.
The rate of UR formation depends on the individual characteristics of the animal, on the frequency of stimulation, on the functional state of the cortex itself and its areas, on the ratio of the strength of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli, on the environment and the changes occurring in it.
Initially, I.P. Pavlov assumed that the conditioned reflex is formed at the level of “cortex-subcortical formations”. In later works, he explained the formation of a conditioned reflex connection by the formation of a temporary connection between the cortical center of the unconditioned reflex and the cortical center of the analyzer. In this case, the main cellular elements of the mechanism for the formation of a conditioned reflex are the intercalary and associative neurons of the cerebral cortex, and the closure of the temporary connection is based on the process of dominant interaction between excited centers. Data from modern neurophysiology indicate the possibility of different levels of closure: “cortex-cortex”, “cortex-subcortical formations”, “subcortical formations-subcortical formations”. E.A. Asratyan, studying the unconditioned reflex, put forward a hypothesis about the structure of the conditioned reflex as a process of synthesis of unconditioned reflexes.
To develop conditioned reflexes, the following conditions are necessary:
1. The action of the conditioned stimulus must precede the influence of the unconditioned one.
2. A repeated combination of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli is necessary.
3. Indifferent and unconditioned stimuli must have superthreshold strength.
4. At the moment of developing a conditioned reflex, there should be no extraneous external stimulation.
3) Types of higher nervous activity (HNA) - a set of innate (genotype) and acquired (phenotype) properties of the nervous system that determine the nature of the organism’s interaction with the environment and are reflected in all functions of the body. The specific significance of congenital and acquired - a product of the interaction of genotype and environment - may vary depending on conditions. In unusual, extreme conditions, predominantly innate mechanisms of higher nervous activity come to the fore. Various combinations of the three main properties of the nervous system allowed I.P. Pavlov identified four sharply defined types, differing in adaptive abilities and resistance to neurotic agents.
3 properties of the nervous system: strength of the nervous system, poise (balance) of the nervous system, mobility.
Nervous System Strength- this is its resistance to prolonged exposure to a stimulus, both exciting and inhibitory. A weak nervous system is a highly sensitive nervous system, and this is its advantage over a strong one.
Equilibrium- the ability to move from one reaction to another. For example, from excitation reactions to inhibition reactions in critical situations.
Mobility- this is the rate of formation of new conditional connections.
Types of higher nervous activity:
Although the selected three parameters of the nervous system give 2 3 = 8 different combinations, Pavlov believed that considering all of them had no practical application. In his opinion, there is no point in considering balance in an object with a weak nervous system, and mobility in types with a strong and unbalanced one.
According to I.P. Pavlov, temperament is the most important characteristic of the human nervous system, which in one way or another affects all the activities of each individual. I.P. Pavlov understood the type of nervous system as innate, relatively weakly susceptible to changes under the influence of environment and upbringing. He called it genotype.
Based on each type, different systems of conditioned neural connections are formed. The process of their formation depends on the type of nervous system. Thus, the type of nervous system provides uniqueness to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the entire essence of a person - determines the mobility of mental processes and their stability. However, it is not a decisive factor in behavior, actions, and beliefs that are formed in the process of a person’s individual life and in the process of upbringing.
IP Pavlov's typology has become the source of many studies of temperament. So, at the end of the 50s of the XX century. Laboratory studies were carried out under the leadership of B. M. Teplov, V. D. Nebilitsin, V. S. Merlin, who supplemented I. P. Pavlov’s typologies with new elements. Many techniques have been developed for studying the human nervous system, which have made it possible to better understand the role of individual temperamental characteristics in human activity. B. M. Teplov and V. D. Nebilitsin, studying the strength of nervous processes, came to the conclusion that there is a close connection between the strength of the nervous system relative to excitation (work capacity) and sensitivity. They revealed such concepts as lability, dynamism, ability to concentrate and other traits of temperament.
All types of temperament can be characterized by the following basic qualities:
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