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Palpation chest.
Palpation examines the pain reaction, temperature and palpable noise in the chest area. Palpation is performed from top to bottom along each intercostal space. The pain reaction is determined by applying pressure with the fingertips or the handle of a percussion hammer to the intercostal spaces on both sides of the chest. In case of a painful reaction, the animal avoids palpation, sometimes groans, bites or kicks. It must be taken into account that some animals, afraid of tickling, also react to palpation.
The temperature response and palpable vibration noises are established by placing the palm of the hand on the chest. With pleurisy, there is an increase in temperature in the lower part of the chest. A limited increase in temperature is sometimes observed with local inflammation of the chest wall.
Palpable noises are determined by the peculiar shaking of the chest wall, directly under the arm. For example, with some diseases of the endocardium and pericardium, noise and vibration are noticeable in the area of the heart; Pleural friction sounds are most often detected in the lower part of the chest and coincide with the phases of breathing. Trembling of the chest wall may be associated with the propagation of the sound of a voice or moan.
Percussion of the chest.
The quality of sounds obtained during percussion of the lungs depends on many factors, which are taken into account during the study. The strength and pitch of lung sounds can be influenced by: the structure of the chest, age, fatness and other conditions.
When starting percussion, it is necessary to establish the topographic boundaries of the lung, and then examine the entire field of the lungs.
The area of propagation of atympanic sound on the chest of large animals is called the lung percussion field.
In cattle
the posterior border of the lungs is determined by two horizontal lines. The upper line runs from the maklok, and the lower from the scapular shoulder joint(Fig. 44). Percussion begins from the middle of the chest along the line of the macle and moves backward, and then along the line of the shoulder joint. Each intercostal space is percussed.
To study the clinical and physiological state of animals and recognize the pathological processes observed in their individual organs and systems, all available research methods are used, which are divided into general, special and laboratory.
General methods of clinical examination of each patient (regardless of the nature of the pathological process) include: examination, palpation, percussion, auscultation and thermometry.
External examination is the simplest and most valuable method of clinical research, which is widely used in veterinary practice; it gives a lot for determining the general condition of the patient and identifying such symptoms of the disease as abnormalities in the position of the body and in the condition of the skin, mucous membranes, as well as in other external features of the animal. .
The examination is carried out in daylight (or in good artificial light) and in a certain sequence, starting from the head and ending with the limbs.
Palpation - tactile research method (the corresponding parts of the body are felt with the hand or fingertips). Palpation gives an idea of a number of properties of the organs and tissues being examined; the nature of their surface, temperature, consistency, shape, size and sensitivity.
By palpation, the quality of the pulse is determined and internal movements occurring near the surface of the body are recognized. The hand inserted into oral cavity, you can feel the root of the tongue and pharynx, and advanced into the rectum - organs abdominal cavity(small intestine, colon and cecum), while determining their location and degree of filling.
Based on the strength of resistance felt during palpation of individual parts of the body, consistency is distinguished: soft, doughy, dense, hard and fluctuating.
Softened tissues, accumulations of blood, lymph, synovium or watery effusion have a soft consistency. On tissues with a doughy consistency, when pressed with a finger, a mark remains in the form of a depression, which evens out relatively quickly. A feeling of dense consistency is obtained when palpating a normal liver. Solid consistency, characteristic of bone. The consistency is called fluctuating when, when pressing with a hand (finger) on the wall of a cavity containing liquid, the wave-like movement of the latter spreads in a circle and is felt by the other hand.
Palpation can be divided into direct and indirect or instrumental.
More often they use direct palpation - feeling the part of the animal's body being examined with the hand or fingers. In some cases, they resort to mediocre palpation, using the handle of a percussion hammer (often when diagnosing pleurisy). Methods of palpation. Depending on the characteristics of a particular pathological process and the purpose in mind, two types of palpation are used: 1) superficial and 2) deep.
Superficial palpation performed with one or both palms of the hands with extended fingers placed on the palpated surface. The areas of the animal's body to be examined are checked with light sliding movements of the fingers. This method of palpation is used mainly when examining the abdomen, chest, limbs, joints, and for general orientation when examining animals.
Deep palpation used for detailed examination and more precise localization of pathological changes under the skin, in muscles or in various organs located in the abdominal or pelvic cavities. It is produced by more or less significant finger pressure.
CLINICAL STUDY METHODS
To study animals, various diagnostic methods are used, which are divided into general and additional, or special (instrumental, laboratory).
GENERAL METHODS
General, or basic, methods of clinical examination of animals include inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation and thermometry. After completing such studies, the doctor forms and substantiates a preliminary diagnosis. The first four methods are called physical, or physical. Then, if necessary, the veterinarian can decide which of the additional methods (instrumental, laboratory) should be used to clarify the diagnosis of the disease.
Inspection. Inspection (inspectio) is a diagnostic research method based on visual perception. Through examination, one can determine the general condition of the animal and identify a number of anomalies in the position of its body and in the condition of the hair, skin, mucous membranes, etc. Moreover, in some cases, one examination can accurately identify the disease, for example, tetanus in horses by the retraction of the third eyelid, epilepsy - when observing epileptic seizures. It should be remembered that it is possible to obtain valuable and reliable results using the inspection method only if certain rules are observed. It is better to inspect in daylight or good artificial lighting.
The contours of the body and its individual parts are examined under lateral lighting. In some cases, you can use lighting devices (mirror, reflector, etc.). Under artificial lighting, it is difficult to detect changes in the color of the skin and mucous membranes, which may cause an incorrect conclusion. There are general, local, individual and group examinations. The examination begins with a general examination, and then moves on to a local one.
General inspection. This is a complete examination of the animal. Every study begins with it, regardless of the supposed localization of the disease process; at the same time, the body composition, fatness of the animal, the position of its body in space, the condition of the mucous membranes, hair and skin are determined, identifying places of damage, excitation, depression, etc. are noted. These data are indicative, they are clarified during further research.
Local inspection. It consists of examining the area that corresponds to the localization of the disease process. It can be external and internal.
External inspection - a method by which the appearance and position of the body part being examined is determined. For example, note the elongated position of the head and neck with pharyngitis, the flow of exudate from the nasal cavity, etc.
Internal inspection, especially hollow organs, a method that requires lighting equipment. The pharynx is examined using a Gabriolavičius light spatula SHOG-1, the mucous membrane of the larynx (laryngoscopy) is examined using a laryngoscope, etc.
Individual inspection. Every sick or suspected animal that is admitted for outpatient or inpatient treatment is subject to it.
Group examination. It is used to examine herds, flocks, herds, herds in order to obtain information about general condition relevant groups of animals.
Palpation. Palpation (from Latin palpatio - to feel, to stroke) is a research method based on the sense of touch and stereometry. This method studies the physical properties of tissues and organs, the topographic relationships between them, their sensitivity, and also detects some functional phenomena in the body. With the help of palpation, you can obtain objective data when comparing a healthy part of the body with a diseased one.
It is better to start palpation from healthy areas and the healthy side, and then move on to the sore side and the sore area. There are superficial, deep and internal palpation.
Superficial palpation. It is performed with one or two palms, placed freely, slightly pressing on the palpated surface. Using light sliding movements, the entire area is examined step by step. Method superficial palpation determine the strength of the heartbeat, temperature and humidity of the skin, examine the movements of the chest, abdominal area, joints, and identify the pain reaction. The consistency and tenderness of the tissues are determined by pressing on them with your fingertips. If it is necessary to establish the degree of pain, then palpate gradually, with increasing pressure until the animal develops a painful reaction. Depending on the force applied, the degree of pain is judged, whether it is normal or pathological.
Deep palpation. This method more accurately determines the localization of pathological changes under the skin, in the muscles or organs of the abdominal and pelvic cavities. It is performed with fingers (four, three, one), sometimes with a fist, with more or less significant pressure. With deep palpation, the physical properties of organs are assessed: size, shape, consistency. The types of deep palpation include sliding, penetrating, bimanual and jerking.
Sliding palpation examine organs located deep in the abdominal and pelvic cavities of small animals. The fingertips penetrate deeper gradually, during the relaxation of the muscle layer that occurs with each breath, and upon reaching a sufficient depth, they slide, gradually feeling the entire area under study.
At penetrating palpation Using vertically placed fingers, apply gradual but firm pressure in a limited area. Typically, this method identifies pain points, especially in the abdominal cavity. Penetrating palpation also includes palpation with a fist: this way the filling of the scar and the pain sensitivity of the mesh in cattle are determined.
Bimanual palpation(palpation with both hands) is used in small animals. In this case, with one hand the area or organ being examined is held in a certain position or moved towards the other, the palpating hand. In this way you can palpate the larynx, pharynx, and esophagus. With both hands you can grasp the pregnant uterus, part of the intestine, kidney, udder and determine their size, shape, consistency, mobility, etc.
Push-like (balloting) palpation used to identify fluid accumulation in cavities, as well as in the study of the liver and spleen. For this purpose, a fist or fingers pressed against each other are placed on the areas under study, and then several short and strong pressing movements (pushes) are made.
Internal palpation. It is most often used in the study of large animals. By palpating through the wall of the rectum it is possible to obtain very valuable information about the condition of the organs located in the abdominal and especially the pelvic cavities. With a hand inserted into the oral cavity, you can feel the tongue, teeth, pharynx, larynx, and the initial part of the esophagus.
Percussion. Percussion (from Latin percussio - tapping, tapping) is an objective research method that involves tapping areas of an animal’s body in order to judge the boundaries and physical properties of the organ located under the percussed surface by the nature of the sound that arises. The ability of different bodies to vibrate is not the same and depends on their elasticity, i.e., the ability to restore their original, original position.
The famous ancient physician Hippocrates used percussion to distinguish the accumulation of liquid or gas in the abdomen. However, the development of this method and its publication in 1761 is the merit of the Viennese physician JT. Auenbrugger. He suggested percussion by striking with his fingers right hand along the chest.
In 1808, Corvisor, a professor at the University of Paris (Napoleon Bonaparte's physician), improved the JI techniques. Auenbrugger, laying the foundation for the scientific substantiation of percussion. In 1827, the French clinician Piori proposed a plessimeter for percussion (from the Greek plessio - I strike, metron - measure) - a plate that is applied to the body and then struck. In 1839, the Viennese clinician Skoda gave a theoretical justification for the percussion method, explaining the various properties of percussion sounds by the laws of acoustics. Barry proposed the percussion hammer, and Wintrich improved it in 1841. This contributed to the spread of mediocre percussion using the percussion hammer and plessimeter.
Percussion was introduced into veterinary clinical diagnostics by Dupois (Alfort) in 1824.
General characteristics percussion sound. The human ear perceives sounds with a frequency of 16 to 20,000 vibrations per second (Hz). Percussion is the sound produced by percussion. Its nature mainly depends on the amount of air in the organ, the elasticity and density of the latter. Percussion sounds are differentiated by strength (loudness), duration, height and shade (timbre).
By strength distinguish between loud (clear) and quiet (dull) sound. The strength of percussion sound depends on the amplitude of sound vibrations, which is determined by the ability to perform oscillatory movements, and on the force of the blow. The amplitude of sound vibrations is inversely proportional to the density of the body being percussed. Bones, muscles, fluids in cavities, liver, spleen, and heart have greater density. Percussion in the area where these organs are located produces a sound with a small vibration amplitude, that is, quiet (dull). Low-density tissues or organs include those that contain a lot of air (lungs, scar, larynx, etc.). Percussion of the lungs with normal airiness produces a low, fairly long and loud sound, which is called clear pulmonary. With pneumonia, the lung tissue becomes dense, less airy, as a result of which the normal loud sound percussed over these areas is replaced by a quieter one - dull or dull.
Duration percussion sound depends on the density and tension of the tissue. The larger the initial amplitude, the longer it takes for it to decrease and become zero and, therefore, the longer the sound. If, when percussing a healthy lung, a loud percussion sound with a large amplitude of sound vibrations occurs, then its duration will be significant. If you percussion an area over a dense organ that does not contain air, the sound will be quiet, with less amplitude, and, therefore, less duration. When the lung is compacted (bronchopneumonia, tuberculosis), the percussion sound in this place, due to the less airiness of the lung tissue, will be dull or dull and at the same time short.
Pitch depends on the vibration frequency of the sound wave: the higher the frequency, the higher the sound, and vice versa. When percussing the lungs, the sound is normally quite low (110...130 Hz), over cavities and emphysematous areas it is much lower, and over compacted areas it is higher.
By shade (timbre) there are sounds that are tympanic, non-tympanic (atympanic) and with a metallic tint. The tympanic sound (tympanon, Greek - drum) is characterized by more regular periodic vibrations, as a result of which it approaches the tone. A non-tympanic sound, unlike a tympanic sound, contains many additional periodic oscillations and, therefore, is noise.
If a body is homogeneous in its composition, then all its particles upon impact undergo oscillations of equal duration and their number per unit time remains constant; This kind of oscillation is called periodic, and the resulting sound is called tone. If the body is heterogeneous in its composition, then parts of the body that are different in structure are characterized by vibrations of different durations. The number of the latter per unit of time in this case is also different; Such oscillations are usually called non-periodic. Complex sounds with non-periodic vibrations, with an indefinite pitch, but with a certain loudness are called noise.
Tympanic percussion sound occurs when organs or cavities containing air are percussed when the tension in their walls decreases. In healthy animals, a tympanic sound is noted during percussion of the stomach, intestines, larynx, and in patients - over cavities in the lungs, with pneumothorax, loss of elasticity of the lungs (atelectasis, inflammation and pulmonary edema in a certain phase).
Above a large smooth-walled cavity in the lung, the percussion sound will be tympanic, reminiscent of the sound of striking a metal plate. It is called a sound with a metallic tint.
When percussing an area not covered by the lungs, liver, or muscles, the percussion sound is quiet, short and high-pitched, or dull. In the area of the gluteal muscles or the muscles of the limbs, it is called the sound of the hip.
Percussion technique. There are direct and mediocre percussion, as well as topographic and comparative.
Direct percussion. Short blows are applied to the area being examined with one or two fingers placed together and slightly bent. In this case, relatively weak and indistinct sounds arise, the assessment of which presents significant difficulties. This percussion is used to a limited extent, mainly when tapping the accessory cavities of the facial skull (maxillary and frontal sinuses).
Mediocre percussion. It can be digital and instrumental.
Digital is as follows: with a slightly bent middle finger of the right hand, blows are struck on the back of the middle phalanx of the index or middle finger of the left hand, tightly attached to the corresponding part of the body (it acts as a plessimeter). The remaining fingers of the left hand are spread apart and do not touch the surface of the body. Short, abrupt blows are applied strictly perpendicularly. In this case, the sound impression is combined with the tactile one and the sound itself is clear, without the background that is created by instrumental percussion.
The disadvantages of digital percussion include the relatively low sound intensity and shallow propagation of vibrations. This type percussion is often used in the study of small animals and young animals of large animals, in which the outer integument is thin and is not an obstacle to research internal organs.
Instrumental percussionpercussion using a percussion hammer and plessimeter (Fig. 1.1). The weight of percussion hammers for small animals is from 60 to 75 g, and for large ones - from 100 to 250 g. The rubber pad in the percussion hammer should be of medium elasticity, fit tightly in the screw-on head and protrude 5...6 mm above the metal surface. A hammer with worn, cracked rubber is unsuitable for work. A rattling metallic sound when the hammer hits the plessimeter indicates that the head of the hammer has turned away and should be screwed in tightly.
Plessimeters are smooth plates of various shapes and sizes made of metal, bone, wood, and plastic. During percussion, the plessimeter is held in the left hand and tightly pressed with the entire plane of the platform to the part of the body being examined; on the chest it is installed in the intercostal space parallel to the ribs. The width of the plessimeter should not exceed the distance between the ribs. The pleximeter is shifted either by the length of its platform or by the width of the rib. The percussion hammer is held with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand so that the handle can be slightly movable. Blows are delivered only by moving the hand at the wrist joint. In this case, the hammer bounces off the plessimeter more easily. The hammer blows should be short and jerky; they are applied perpendicular to the surface of the plessimeter, while the examiner’s ear should be at the same level as the percussion site. Percuss only indoors at a distance of at least 1.5 m from the wall.
The plessimeter is struck 2 times one after the other, after which a short pause is made, then 2 times are struck again and the pause is made again. One or two pairs of such blows are applied in the same place, then the plessimeter is moved to another area and percussed in the same way. According to the technique of execution, percussion is distinguished between staccato and legato.
Staccato method - the blows are short and jerky; the hammer does not stay on the plessimeter after the second blow. This method is used to detect pathology in organs.
Legato method - the hammer lingers on the plessimeter for some time after the second blow. Using this method, the sizes (boundaries) of organs are determined.
You should percuss moderately quickly: so that the pause between pairs of beats allows you to compare the tonality of one sound with the tonality of another. In other words, it is necessary for sound from one place to overlap with sound from another.
The force of percussion may vary depending on the purpose of percussion, the thickness of the chest or abdominal wall and the depth of location of the pathological focus. In this regard, a distinction is made between deep (strong) and superficial (weak) percussion. With strong (deep) percussion, tissue vibrations occur up to 7 cm deep, over an area of 4...6 cm 2; with weak - up to 4 cm in depth and on an area of 3 cm 2. To identify deeply located lesions in the lungs, deep percussion is used, and superficial ones - superficial; through the latter, the boundaries and sizes of organs are also determined. A type of weak percussion is “percussion at the threshold of auditory perception.” It is used to establish the boundaries of organs, for example, to determine the area of absolute dullness of the heart.
Topographical and comparative percussion. Topographic percussion can distinguish anatomical structures (lungs, heart, liver, spleen). It is based on the difference in sounds produced by percussion of different organs, which is associated with their unequal elasticity and degree of airiness. Comparative percussion consists of the following: symmetrical areas of the body are tapped, for example on the chest, and the sound obtained on them is compared.
Auscultation. Auscultation (from Latin auscultatio - to listen) - listening to sound phenomena that arise during the work of internal organs and cavities. In tissue structures, as a result of the functioning of the respiratory organs, heart, stomach and intestines, elastic vibrations arise, some of which reach the surface of the body. These vibrations can be heard by placing the ear against the animal's body (immediate or direct auscultation), as well as using various instruments or devices for auscultation (indirect or indirect auscultation).
Auscultation has been used in medicine for a very long time. Hippocrates also described the friction noise of the pleura, which he compared to the “creaking of a leather belt,” and wet rales to the sounds of vinegar boiling. Later they learned to listen to heart murmurs. However, great credit for the use of auscultation as a method of clinical research belongs to the French doctor R. Laennec, who in 1816 first invented the stethoscope (from the Greek stethos - chest, skopeo - looking, examining).
In Russia, the auscultation method was introduced in 1825 by P. A. Charukovsky at the Medical-Surgical Academy. The physical basis for auscultation was given by Skoda in 1839. On the issues of auscultation of animals, the most valuable should be considered the works of Marek, published in 1901.
Sounds perceived by auscultation, like percussion sounds, are characterized by strength, height, timbre, and duration. The characteristics of the sound perceived by the ear depend largely on the properties of the tissues separating the human ear from the organ, and above all on sound permeability and resonating ability. Dense, homogeneous bodies (for example, compacted lung tissue) conduct sounds well; Soft air tissues have poor sound permeability. Direct and indirect methods of auscultation are widely used in practice.
Direct auscultation. The animal is covered with a sheet or towel for hygienic purposes, and also to eliminate sounds that occur when the researcher’s ear comes into contact with the animal’s hair. With this method, sounds are perceived without distortion from a larger surface of the animal’s body.
The front part of the body of large animals on the right side is listened to with the left ear, and on the left sides - right. To do this, you need to stand on the side of the animal, facing its head, place your hand on the withers or back and put your ear to desired area. When examining organs located in the back of the body, stand facing the rear of the animal, placing your hand on its back. It is necessary to listen carefully, preventing the possibility of a blow with the pelvic limb. In restless horses, for this purpose, the thoracic limb is raised and the animal’s head is held well. Aus - it is better to cultivate small animals on the table.
Mediocre auscultation. For this type of auscultation, stethoscopes, phonendoscopes or stethophonendoscopes are used. It is more hygienic and convenient for the doctor, especially when auscultating small animals and when a seriously ill animal is forced to lie down. Flexible stethoscopes and phonendoscopes somewhat distort the natural nature of the sounds that occur when the lungs, heart or digestive organs work.
To obtain reliable results, auscultation requires silence in the room. When listening to animals on the street, wind noise, rustling grass or leaves, and other extraneous noises interfere. It is necessary that the bell of the stethoscope fits moderately tightly and completely to the listening surface. A stethoscope can be hard or flexible.
Solid stethoscope is a tube made of wood, plastic or metal with funnel-shaped extensions at the ends: a narrower extension is applied to the animal’s skin, a wider one is applied to the doctor’s ear. A solid stethoscope is a closed system designed to transmit vibrations through a column of air and the solid part of the stethoscope into temporal bone examiner (bone conduction). Therefore, it is better to use a wooden stethoscope.
Important condition use of a stethoscope - maintaining a closed acoustic system, which is achieved by close contact of the stethoscope with the animal’s body and the researcher’s ear. The skin to which the stethoscope funnel is applied acts as a membrane; the acoustic properties of the skin change depending on the pressure: with increasing pressure of the funnel on the skin, sounds are better transmitted high frequency and, conversely, when too strong pressure vibrations of the underlying tissues are inhibited. When auscultating, the stethoscope must be pressed with the head against the skin of the animal, but not too much, otherwise the vibration of the tissue in the area of contact of the stethoscope will weaken and sounds will be less audible. It should also be borne in mind that since the sound travels along the wall of the stethoscope, at the moment of auscultation the hand is removed from it and held slightly lower than the instrument in order to prevent it from possibly falling if the animal is disturbed. Solid stethoscopes are especially valuable for cardiac auscultation.
Flexible stethoscope consists of a small solid (metal, celluloid, etc.) tube with a socket, attached to the part of the body being auscultated, and rubber tubes connecting it with the doctor’s ears using olives. Such a stethoscope, although convenient for examination, somewhat changes the nature of the sounds heard, since rubber tubes conduct low sounds better than high ones; in addition, they allow extraneous noise to pass through, which somewhat changes the nature of the sounds heard, which cannot be said about solid stethoscopes.
Phonendoscope(from the Greek phone - sound, endon - inside and skopeo - looking, exploring) - a listening device that amplifies sound due to a membrane and a resonating chamber. A phonendoscope with a pilot can detect sounds originating in a very small area, which is important when differential diagnosis cardiac murmurs, as well as in the study of small animals. A phonendoscope, to a greater extent than a flexible stethoscope, distorts sound, which is usually mixed with extraneous noise caused by the vibration of the membrane and the walls of the rubber tubes.
Stethoscope is a combination of a flexible stethoscope (it contains a funnel and elastic tubes, the ends of which are inserted into the external auditory canal) and a phonendoscope, consisting of a sound-collecting chamber and a sound-amplifying membrane (Fig. 1.2).
Also developed polyuranic phonendoscope, thanks to which several people can listen to the organ at the same time. They also use electronic devices that significantly amplify sounds during individual auscultation ( electrophonendoscope) or when listening to a group through a speaker (cardiophone).
With the advent of modern devices, the auscultation method continues to improve and becomes even more diagnostic value.
To master this method, as well as the above, systematic exercises of the researcher’s senses are necessary. Only an experienced doctor will notice and correctly evaluate the changes.
Thermometry. Thermometry (from the Greek therme - heat and metreo - I measure) is mandatory when examining a sick animal and has important diagnostic value. Thermometry was first proposed by de Gaen in 1758. In some internal diseases, an increase or decrease in body temperature is noted even before the appearance of other signs; thermometry indicators are used to monitor the progress of the disease and judge the results of the treatment undertaken, and for many infections, general thermometry is used as a method for the early detection of sick animals. In veterinary practice, a maximum Celsius thermometer is used. Body temperature is also measured with electric thermometers (see Chapter 3).
DEFINITION OF HABITUUS
Habitus (from Latin habitus - appearance, appearance) is determined by the totality external signs, characterizing the body position (posture), fatness, physique, constitution and temperament of the animal at the time of the study.
Definition of habit - necessary element general research, with with help which reveals diagnostically important signs of the disease and gives an idea of the general condition of the animal. However, one cannot limit oneself to this first impression and neglect a thorough and exhaustive study of the animal.
Body position. In healthy animals, the body position is naturally standing or naturally lying down; in sick animals it can be forced standing or forced lying. In some painful conditions, animals take unnatural positions or make forced movements, which is caused by loss of consciousness, weakness, various pains, dizziness, nervous or muscle paralysis, etc.
Healthy horses relatively rarely lie down (mostly on their sides, with their limbs stretched out), and healthy cattle and pigs often, especially after eating, rest lying down (even during the day). Cattle lie on their stomachs with their limbs bent.
A forced lying or forced standing position (unnatural posture), when the animal cannot easily change it, indicates a disease. However, it should be borne in mind that healthy animals sometimes, for a number of reasons (fatigue, high external temperature, etc.) do not want to change a position that is comfortable for them. A forced lying position can be considered if all measures of influence and assistance provided to the animal when it tries to get up are ineffective.
For the veterinarian, the patient's standing position is comfortable. Some studies, such as determining the nature of the disorders respiratory functions(ataxia, paralysis, etc.) are associated with observation of the animal. Small animals are usually placed on a table or in a lying position. When examining the liver, spleen, bladder The lying position is most comfortable for small animals.
Forced lying position observed in many diseases, in particular those occurring with loss of consciousness. This posture serves as a very valuable symptom, but only in a limited number of diseases of large animals, while in small animals it is found in many diseases. Cows sometimes lie for a long time before and after calving, as well as during maternity paresis and severe ketosis; horses - with paralytic myoglobinuria, severe forms of infectious encephalomyelitis, traumatic lesions of the spinal cord.
In many animals, a forced recumbent position is observed much more often. It is characteristic of the severe course of most diseases. Small cattle, pigs and carnivores prefer to lie down during severe febrile conditions; pigs usually burrow deep into the bedding, while cats and dogs huddle in a corner. When called or when trying to lift the animal, it reluctantly gets up and, after taking a few steps, tends to lie down again.
Forced standing position observed mainly in horses with tetanus, pleurisy, all diseases occurring with severe dyspnea (acute alveolar emphysema), and certain brain lesions (chronic hydrocele of the cerebral ventricles).
Unnatural poses animals easily attract attention and serve as valuable symptoms of a number of pathological conditions body. The body position of horses with tetanus is very characteristic: they stand with their limbs widely spaced, with their heads extended and raised; the ears are erect, the back is tensely straightened, the tail is raised high, the eye slits are somewhat narrowed, partially covered by the prolapsed third eyelid. An elongated position of the head also occurs in horses with pharyngitis. In severe febrile illnesses, horses usually stand with their heads bowed, eyes half-closed, indifferent to everything around them. In cattle, a forced standing position is observed with traumatic pericarditis: the head of such animals is extended forward, the elbows are turned outward, the pelvic limbs are brought under the stomach, the back is hunched.
Involuntary, or forced, movements are characterized by great variety and have important diagnostic value when studying the disease process and assessing the patient’s condition. These include: aimless wandering, ma-
gentle and rotating, as well as forward, backward and roll-shaped.
Aimless wandering observed in animals in a state of oppression: they wander aimlessly for hours, constantly changing place; weakly or completely do not respond to external stimuli; coordination of movements is impaired, animals stumble, climb walls, fences and stop in a daze or change direction only in front of insurmountable obstacles. There are cases when an animal, having stopped in front of an obstacle, continues to make its usual movements in place. Aimless wandering occurs with lesions of the brain and its functional disorders - encephalomyelitis, acute cerebral meningitis, infectious encephalomyelitis of horses, ketosis of cattle, coenurosis of sheep.
Manege movements in most cases they represent a long coordinated movement in a circle in a certain direction. The diameter of the circle may gradually decrease, so that the animal eventually begins to rotate, arching its back, around itself and suddenly falls. Sometimes the diameter of the circle increases or remains unchanged, and then the animals make circular movements for hours.
The causes of manege movements are different: disorders of consciousness, unilateral damage to the cerebellum, the middle part of the striatum or the posterior part of the thalamus, as well as partial disruption of the conductivity of the central motor pathways.
Rotational movements- rotation of the animal’s body around one of the limbs, often clockwise, less often in the opposite direction. They occur with damage to the cerebellum, paralysis of the vestibular nerve.
Backwards movements observed with infectious encephalomyelitis and cerebrospinal meningitis, are accompanied by throwing back the head, strong contractions of the occipital muscles and spasms of the spinal muscles. Coordination of movements is disrupted, the pelvic limbs sag, the animal quickly falls and even capsizes.
Rolling movements, or movements of the body of a lying animal around the longitudinal axis indicate unilateral damage to the vestibular nerve, cerebellar peduncles or parts surrounding them. They are often accompanied by rotation of the head around its longitudinal axis and extension of the limbs. In this case, movements can be limited to only one revolution or even half a revolution, and sometimes continue until they are stopped by some obstacle encountered along the way. Rolling movements are often observed in dogs, cats and birds.
Fatness. By fatness they judge the intensity of metabolism in the body, the correctness and completeness of feeding the animal. To characterize fatness, inspection and palpation are used. There are good, satisfactory, unsatisfactory (poor) nutrition, exhaustion, or cachexia (from the Greek kakos - bad, hexis - condition), obesity.
Upon examination at well-fed animals mark rounded contours; the bony protrusions on their body are smoothed out. In animals with satisfactory nutrition the muscles are moderately developed, the shape of the body is angular; the spinous processes of the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, the ischial tuberosities and macles protrude indistinctly, the deposition of subcutaneous fat is palpated at the base of the tail, on the ischial tuberosities and in the knee fold. At poor nutrition in animals the angularity of the contours is clearly expressed; the bones of the body, ribs, spinous processes, and ischial tuberosities are clearly marked. The extreme degree of poor nutrition is called exhaustion; excessive fat deposition with signs of functional disorders - obesity.
In cattle, to determine the degree of fat deposition in the subcutaneous tissue, palpate the area of the base of the tail, the maculae, the ischial tuberosities, the last two ribs and the knee crease.
When assessing the condition of horses, pay attention to the croup area: if the slopes of the croup form a convex surface, then the condition is considered good. With satisfactory fatness, the contour of the croup slopes is a straight line, with poor fatness it is a concave line.
In sheep and goats, the area of the hips, back, shoulder joint, last ribs and knee crease is palpated. In well-fed animals, an elastic fat pad can be felt. In fat-tailed sheep, attention is paid to the size and elasticity of the fat tail.
In pigs, fat deposits are palpated on the processes of the dorsal vertebrae.
Physique. By physique we understand the degree of development of the skeleton and muscle tissue. Body type is determined by inspection, sometimes using measuring instruments. When assessing the indicator, the age and breed of the animal are taken into account. Take into account the degree of development of bones and muscle tissue, as well as proportionality individual parts body and exterior features of the animal. There are strong (correct, good), average and weak (incorrect, bad) physiques.
Manifestations of disease in animals or symptoms are identified through research that involves the use of a range of methods. They are divided into general, special (instrumental), laboratory and functional.
General methods are in turn divided into inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation and thermometry. They are called general because they are used in the study of almost every patient, regardless of the nature of the disease.
Inspection (inspectio). Conducted with the naked eye in good lighting or using reflectors and endoscopic devices. The inspection can be group and individual, general and local, external and internal.
Group examination is carried out during the study large quantity animals and, with its help, identify sick or suspicious individuals for further comprehensive examination. Each sick animal admitted for treatment is subjected to an individual examination. A general inspection is carried out on the left and right, front and back, and, if possible, from above. At the same time, the habit, the condition of the hair, skin, the presence of surface damage, and the symmetry of various parts of the body are determined. Local examination allows you to examine areas of localization of the disease process and can be external or internal (using lighting devices).
Palpation (palpatio). The palpation method is based on touch. They first palpate healthy areas of the body, and then the affected ones. In this case, palpation should not cause pain to the animal or resemble tickling. There are superficial and deep palpation.
Superficial examination of the skin subcutaneous tissue, muscles, joints, tendons and ligaments. By firmly applying the palm of your hand, you can establish, for example, the temperature and humidity of the tissues, assess the state of the heartbeat, and the presence of tangible noises. The consistency and tenderness of the tissues is determined by pressing the fingertips with increasing force until the animal responds. By stroking the palm, the character of the surface is established, and with the fingers, the shape and integrity of the bones and joints are determined. By gathering the skin into a fold, its elasticity is determined and areas of increased pain sensitivity (hyperalgesia) are identified.
Deep palpation examines the organs of the abdominal and pelvic cavity by determining their location, size, shape, consistency, and pain. Deep palpation can be external and internal. Deep external include:
Penetrating palpation, when you press with your fingers or a fist on the abdominal wall and examine a specific organ, for example the liver, scar, etc.
In small animals, foals and calves, bimanual palpation is used, i.e. with both hands. In this case, it is possible to grasp the organ and determine its condition.
By means of jerking or balloting palpation, it is possible to detect the accumulation of transudate in the abdominal cavity and establish the presence of a fetus in the uterus. In this case, the shocks carried out on one side of the abdominal wall are caught by the palm on the other side.
Deep internal palpation is carried out in large animals through the rectum (rectal examination) of large animals to obtain data on the condition of the organs located in the pelvic and abdominal cavities.
Percussion (percussio). Exploration through tapping. In this case, it is possible to determine the physical condition of the organ, its boundaries, as well as pain in the area of percussion. Applying a blow to the surface of the body causes oscillatory movements of superficial and deep-lying tissues, which are perceived by the researcher as sound. Percussion is carried out in a closed small room in silence. There are direct and mediocre, as well as digital and instrumental percussion.
Direct percussion is carried out with the tip of one or two (index and middle) fingers bent at the second phalanx. The blows are applied directly to the surface being examined. The sound is weak and unclear. Therefore, this type of percussion is used only when studying air cavities limited by bones (frontal, maxillary sinuses). Sometimes these cavities are tapped by applying gentle blows with the butt of a percussion hammer.
With mediocre percussion, blows are applied not to the surface being examined, but to a finger or plessimeter pressed to the skin. In this case, the sound is louder and clearer, since it consists of a blow to a finger or plessimeter, vibrations of the chest or abdominal wall and a column of air located in the organ being studied.
Small animals and young animals are studied using mediocre digital percussion. Index or middle finger The left hand is applied tightly to the skin, and jerky blows are applied with the fingers of the right hand.
Mediocre instrumental percussion is carried out on large animals using a plessimeter and a hammer of various sizes and shapes; they will be shown to you in practical classes. The pleximeter is tightly applied to the area of the body being examined. The hammer is held with the index finger and thumb of the other hand without pinching the end of the handle. The blows are applied perpendicularly to the plessimeter, and they should be paired, short and abrupt.
At topographic percussion the blows should be of medium or weak force, and the hammer should be held slightly on the plessimeter (legato percussion). The research is carried out, as a rule, along auxiliary lines.
During percussion, in order to establish pathological changes in organs and tissues, percussion is carried out with strong, short and abrupt blows (staccato percussion). The pleximeter is moved in the area of projection of the organ onto the surface of the body from top to bottom and from front to back.
Auscultation (auscultatio). Study by listening and evaluating the sounds produced by the operation of a number of internal organs. Auscultation should be carried out, if possible, indoors and in complete silence. Listening is carried out directly with the ear or using special instruments.
When listening directly, the ear is applied to the animal’s body covered with a sheet, and safety precautions must be strictly observed. In this way, large animals can be auscultated in a standing position. Listening to small and large lying animals is quite difficult.
Mediocre auscultation is carried out using stethoscopes, phonendoscopes or stethophonendoscopes. These tools create a closed sound system, making sounds perceived louder and more distinct. Listening begins from the center of the projection of the organ onto the surface of the body (when auscultating the lung - in the middle of the percussion triangle behind the scapula, the heart - at the place of greatest severity of the cardiac impulse), and then sequentially evaluate sounds in other areas.
Thermometry (thermometria). A method based on measuring the body temperature of an animal. Thermometry is mandatory when examining sick or suspected animals. Conducted using thermometers of various designs (mercury, electric, recording infrared radiation body).
In veterinary practice, they mainly use a maximum veterinary mercury thermometer with a division scale from 34 to 42C. They measure the body temperature of animals in the rectum (in birds in the cloaca) for 5-7 minutes. After each examination, the thermometer must be cleaned and disinfected.
Special (instrumental) research methods are also divided into several subgroups: endoscopic methods (using various lighting devices - rhinoscopy, laryngoscopy, pharyngoscopy, cystoscopy; or by obtaining an image on an X-ray screen - fluoroscopy); graphical methods involve receiving a document, this could be a graph, photograph, x-ray, etc.; the subgroup of other methods is very diverse and these include the most widely used in veterinary medicine: probing, catheterization, puncture, biopsy of various organs and tissues, and others. It should be borne in mind that the list of special methods is not limited to this scheme; there are many more of them, and with the development of science and technology, the number of methods will inevitably increase.
Laboratory methods involve the examination of blood, urine, feces, discharge, punctures, and secretions. The list of indicators determined in biological fluids, tissues and excrement is very large - several tens of thousands, and it is constantly growing.
Functional research methods are used to assess the function of body systems as a whole or individual organs. In veterinary medicine, the most developed methods are for functional studies of the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, nervous systems, urinary organs (kidneys), endocrine organs and hematopoietic organs.
animal clinical habitus diagnostic
