No, you will not be forgotten, a century of madness and wisdom!..
A.N. Radishchev
In the series of centuries of European history, the 18th century occupies a special place. There were times of more grandiose achievements, but there was no era more complete in style, more, so to speak, “whole.” The famous art critic N. Dmitrieva calls it the last century of the dominance of aristocratic culture. Hence its refinement and this very “stylishness,” sometimes at the expense of depth. And at the same time, this is the era of the establishment of new values in the life of Europeans, values that are still alive today and which, in fact, determine the current face of European civilization.
To the melodic chimes of harpsichords and harps, several revolutions took place simultaneously in the lives, heads and hearts of Europeans, of which only two we usually call “revolutions” proper: the Great French Revolution and the War of Independence of the United States of America. Meanwhile, they only put points that smelled of blood and gunpowder in the sentences that Europe diligently wrote throughout the 18th century.
So, first a little about revolutions.
Revolution on the tables
The main achievement of the “eighteenth century” is that it, in principle, ended famine in the main countries of Europe. The “bread riots” in Paris don’t bother us too much: more often they rioted due to the lack or high cost of the already familiar white bread. So Marie Antoinette’s frivolous phrase (“If the people have no bread, let them eat cake”) is in some ways not so frivolous. Yes, there were interruptions in the supply of bread to large cities, but in terms of absolute famine, Europe suffered in full at the very beginning of the 18th century, when during a bad harvest, even black bread began to be served at Madame Maintenon’s table.
In the 18th century, the European menu changed dramatically. The old triad (bread meat wine) is complemented by new products: potatoes, corn, spinach, green peas, tea, coffee and chocolate (which are becoming increasingly popular delicacies). And the previous three “pillars” of the European diet are significantly changing their “face”. Since the mid-18th century in France, rye bread has been replaced by wheat bread made with milk (the famous “French boxes” were brought to Europe by Napoleon’s soldiers on their bayonets).
With the improvement of livestock farming, the meat market, which was extremely constrained by the powerful population growth in the previous three centuries, is gradually becoming saturated. Of course, for most Europeans, meat is not yet available in the most healthy form: in the form of corned beef and all kinds of smoked meats. However, with fish it was still more difficult: they said that the poor could only enjoy the aroma of fresh fish.
Finally, climate and taste preferences also determined the characteristics of the consumption of alcoholic beverages. The south and southwest of Europe chose wine, the north and northwest - beer, and the most dashing and cold northeast - of course, vodka.
The influx of sugar (generally speaking, still very expensive) made it possible to stock up on fruits and berries (and vitamins for the winter). True, at the beginning of the 18th century, jam was still such a rare and valuable product that, for example, the Parisians presented it as a gift to Peter the Great.
All these seemingly purely culinary innovations produced a real revolution. Suffice it to say that Britain, which did not know a shortage of meat products, owes much of its powerful population growth in the 18th century to this, without which, in fact, the British Empire would not have happened. And the American colonists’ love for tea led to their outrage at the rise in tea duties introduced by English officials (the so-called “Boston Tea Party”). Figuratively speaking, the United States of America was born from a cup of spilled tea.
The table revolution propelled the development of society forward. Without it, Europe and North America would not have become the hegemon of the rest of the world in the 19th century.
(By the way, the 18th century also came to grips with setting the European table, which was greatly facilitated by the production of porcelain, gourmetism instead of gluttony and increased hygiene standards. Rules of behavior at the table, dishes and cutlery came to us (at least at the level of embassy and restaurant banquets) from there, from the “eighteenth century”).
Revolution in our heads
The 18th century is usually called the Age of Enlightenment, although this word itself is too sluggish and approximately defines the processes that took place in the minds of Europeans between 1700 and 1804 (I indicate the year of death of I. Kant).
European thinkers break with theology and delimit the sphere of philosophy proper from natural science. According to Newton’s mechanistic picture of the world, God is needed only as the one who gave the initial impetus to the development of nature, and then the world rolled away from him completely separately.
The 18th century is the century of practitioners, which is why thinkers are not satisfied with empty scholastic reasoning. The criterion of truth is experience. Any pathos and rhetoric seem inappropriate under any circumstances. Dying of cancer, the marquise, for whom Rousseau served, emits gases, declares that a woman capable of such a thing will still live, and gives her soul to God, one might say, with a boldly carefree smile.
Philosophers admire the perfection of the world (Leibniz) and mercilessly criticize it (encyclopedists), sing hosannas to reason and the progress of civilization (Voltaire) and declare progress and reason the enemies of natural human rights (Rousseau). But all these theories now, at a distance of years, do not seem mutually exclusive. They all revolve around a person, his ability to understand the world around him and transform it in accordance with his needs and ideas about the “best”.
At the same time, philosophers have been confident for a very long time that man is reasonable and good by nature, that only “circumstances” are to blame for his misfortunes. Literacy and potatoes are planted by the monarchs themselves. The general mood of European philosophy of the 18th century can be called “cautious optimism,” and its slogan was Voltaire’s call for everyone to “cultivate his own garden.”
Alas, the bloody horrors of the French Revolution will force us to radically reconsider the complacent delusion of philosophers, but this will only happen in the next century. However, the purely European idea of individual rights would then, in the 18th century, establish itself as the most basic value.
Revolution in hearts
The “Age of Reason” would not have taken place in all its splendor without a revolution in hearts. The personality gradually becomes emancipated and realizes its inner world as important and valuable. The emotional life of Europeans is becoming richer and more sophisticated.
Immortal evidence of this was the great music of the 18th century, perhaps one of the highest achievements in the history of mankind.
The remarkable French composer of the early 18th century J.F. Rameau was the first to formulate the intrinsic role of music, which was previously considered only an aid to words. He wrote: “To truly enjoy music, we must completely dissolve in it” (quoted from: G. Koenigsberger, p. 248).
Music expressed the emotions of the time much more accurately and subtly than the censored word squeezed by conventions. For an educated European it has become an urgent necessity. In the libraries of Czech and Austrian castles, along with books, sheet music folders are crowded on the shelves: new musical releases were read here at sight, like newspapers, and just as greedily!
The music of the 18th century is still full of a lot of conventions and given formulas. It was the presence of these common places that allowed composers to be so prolific (over 40 operas by G. F. Handel, more than 200 violin concertos by A. Vivaldi, more than 100 symphonies by I. Haydn!) At the same time, it is still so democratic that it gives a chance even and amateurs: Zh.Zh. Rousseau composes an opera that is a success at court, and the king himself, terribly out of tune, sings his favorite arietka from it.
Music of the 18th century was closely connected with life and everyday life. Bach hoped that his sacred music could be performed by a choir of parishioners in a church, and the most beloved everyday dance, the minuet, became an integral part of any symphony until the era of Beethoven
Each country in the 18th century realized its identity through music. German G.F. Handel brought the lush Italian opera seria to foggy London. But the ancient stories seemed too abstract and lifeless to the British public. Almost without changing the musical form, Handel proceeds to create oratorios, which are, as it were, the same operas, but only in concert performance, and they are written based on stories from the Bible that were passionately experienced by listeners. And the general public responds to this with delight; Handel’s spiritual oratorios become a national treasure, their performance results in patriotic manifestations.
The result of the musical development of the 18th century is the work of V.A. Mozart. The brilliant Austrian introduces a new theme into music - the theme of the fate of his creator, that is, he introduces the personality of a contemporary with his simple and urgent desires, joys and fears. “In general, Man is a creature of God” thanks to this, in music he turns into a person of a specific era, acquires the features of a real personality and destiny
A revolution in manners
A strictly hierarchical feudal society always pays special attention to etiquette. It is a means of emphasizing the status (orderly inequality) of social position.
Of course, etiquette continues to dominate relations between people in the 18th century. Ambassadors delay presenting credentials if papers proving their nobility dates back to at least the 14th century do not arrive on time. Otherwise, during the presentation ceremony at Versailles, the king will not be able to hug and kiss the ambassador’s wife, but will only greet her! Etiquette dominates the minds of the courtiers to such an extent that some of them quite seriously claim that the Great French Revolution broke out because the Controller General of Finance Necker came to the king in shoes with bows, and not with buckles!
However, the monarchs themselves are already quite tired of all these conventions. Louis the Fifteenth hides from the constraints of etiquette in the boudoirs of his lovers, Catherine the Great in her Hermitage, and Marie Antoinette cannot swallow a bite at the traditional public royal meal and is satisfied afterwards, already alone.
Opposed to the courtyard is a salon, aristocratic and bourgeois, where hosts and guests communicate briefly. The tone is set by the most august persons. The Regent of France, Philippe d'Orléans the Younger, proclaims at his orgies: “Everything is prohibited here except pleasure!”
But the ice floe of feudal etiquette is melting slowly and unevenly. Back in 1726, the lackeys of a noble lord could beat the fashionable author de Voltaire with sticks for an impudent answer to their master. Back in 1730, the church could refuse to bury the famous actress Adrienne Lecouvreur (despite the fact that she was the mistress of the Marshal of France), because during her lifetime she was engaged in the “shameful craft of an actor.”
But twenty years later, in the same France, the status of the artist changes, the artist will literally force the king to respect his human dignity. And it was like this. Offended by Louis the Fifteenth, the famous pastel portrait master Latour refused for a long time to immortalize the Marquise of Pompadour “herself.” When she managed to persuade the whim, the artist undressed in front of her almost to his shirt. During the session the king entered. “How, madam, you swore to me that they would not interfere with us!” Latour screamed and rushed to collect the crayons. The king and his mistress barely persuaded the pastel virtuoso to continue the session.
Of course, in a feudal society everything is determined by rank, not talent. Mozart writes that at the table of the Salzburg archbishop his place is higher than the footman, but lower than the cook. But at about this time, bourgeois England was already burying the “actor,” the great actor D. Garrick, in Westminster Abbey!
The crisis of feudal society gives rise to a new idea of man. Now the ideal is not the feudal lord or the court nobleman, but the private individual, the “good man” in France, the gentleman in England. By the end of the century, in these countries it was not nobility, but success, talent and wealth that determined the status of an individual in society.
Here is a typical anecdote on this topic. Napoleon could not stand the composer Cherubini. Once, at a reception in the palace, after introducing everyone present, the emperor again pointedly inquired about the name of “this gentleman.” “Still Cherubini, sire!” The maestro answered him sharply.
In other countries, it will take almost half of the next century to emancipate the individual.
Peter discovers Europe
In the 18th century, another great power appeared on the European political scene: Russia. The “presentation” of the new political giant took place in the spring and summer of 1717, when an embassy of the still mysterious, but already slightly Europeanized “Muscovites” visited a number of European capitals.
Alas, neither Paris nor Berlin were fascinated by the Russian heroes led by Tsar Peter.
Now for the details.
At the end of April that year, the Russians arrived at the French border. Versailles sent one of its most elegant courtiers, the Marquis de Mailly-Nesle, to meet them. The Marquis found the Russians, naturally, in the tavern, snoring and vomiting. Only Peter moved his tongue.
Culture
Many historical lists generally cover achievements made during a particular period. The list below is also a kind of achievement, but not the way we imagine it. This is a slightly different progress made by people in the 18th century.
Today we place a high value on personal hygiene, but until the early 18th century, a person might never be immersed in water in his entire life. Many people believed that bathing was unhealthy, and that “soaking” your body in water, especially hot water, allowed various kinds of diseases and infections to enter the body. Even if a person still decided to take a bath, he did it in clothes! This habit continued until the end of the 19th century.
Until the 1880s, people didn't even think about creating deodorant, despite the fact that most of them smelled very bad most of the time, but they did not experience any discomfort from it. The rich tried to mask the bad smell with a lot of perfume, however, today everyone knows that this method does not work.
It is worth noting that back in the 9th century, the polymath Ziryab proposed the idea of creating a deodorant for armpits, but it did not take root. Until 1888, nothing like this existed. It was this year that mass production of the first deodorants began, which had phenomenal success in the West. These deodorants are still available today, they are produced under the Mama brand.
Women did not take care of their body hair. In the Western world, body hair removal did not become a common practice until the 1920s. There are certainly some countries where women still don't do anything about their body hair. However, there is no need to talk about this now.
Houses during that period of time smelled foul of natural human excrement. There was no running water then, and most people relieved themselves in a pot, which could be left until someone decided to throw its contents out the nearest window. Later, the pots were preserved in some houses, but open toilets had already been created. However, even in the Victorian era, potties were used as an emergency toilet at night.
Toilet paper was invented at the end of the 18th century, and until then people used improvised means. The rich had the luxury of wiping themselves with scraps of cloth. The poor used old rags, leaves, moss and... their hands! Even the ancient Romans lived better - for these purposes they used cloth wrapped around a stick, and then immersed it in a bucket of water. The picture shows a portable toilet from the 18th century.
Infestations of bed bugs and insects became rampant in the 18th century. They were considered the norm of life. Unfortunately, these insects have certainly been responsible for the spread of numerous diseases. They remained a constant problem until modern times. In the Victorian era, women were encouraged to wipe down the bottoms of their beds with kerosene to kill any unwanted guests.
Women during that period had several “models” of behavior. Some used a piece of fabric, and the same one more than once; moreover, these scraps were dried in a visible place at the same time as other things, without any embarrassment. Therefore, it was better not to look over the fence to the neighbors. However, there were also women who did not use anything and allowed gravity to “do its thing.”
In big cities, the streets smelled of a mixture of manure, human excrement and rotting plants. If you've ever wondered where the gentleman's tradition of walking closer to the edge of the road came from, don't dig too deep, it also came about to protect your lady from the splashes of passing cars. The next time you see a man in a movie gallantly throwing his cloak on the ground for his lady to pass, remember: it's likely that he's not covering up a puddle at all.
There was more to dental hygiene than using a toothpick and wiping your gums with a tissue. Women tended to have worse teeth than men due to the loss of vitamins during pregnancy.
For poor people, everything happened exactly like this, but for the wealthy, the Italian company Marvis began producing its toothpaste back in the early 1700s (they continue to produce it to this day). But frankly, people were more confused about buying meat than they were interested in buying Italian toothpaste. It was completely unimportant.
Absolutely every person at that time was infected with lice. But fear not, as they have chosen an amazing cure for it: mercury! In the 18th century, Europe had a love affair with mercury. They ate it, rubbed it into their skin, became crazy and died. On the “positive” side, it killed the lice first!
The 18th century in Russia can be considered a century of revolutions, which, of course, were not easy. This is the time of the reign of the great Peter I, who tried to change Russia in a short period of time. Let's consider how Europe influenced Russia during this period. The 18th century changed Peter I’s view of governing the state, which entailed a number of reforms that subsequently contributed to the development of Russia.
Also in the 18th century, the Russian state was ruled by Catherine the Great, during whose reign serfdom was strengthened, and a lot of blood was shed during the peasant wars. Catherine the Great was intensely involved in pursuing noble policy, so the 18th century, or more precisely the 34 years of Catherine II’s reign, went down in history as the “golden age of the nobility.”
There are many opinions about what the 18th century was like. Some historians call this century merciless, and this is quite natural in connection with the facts described above, while others consider the 18th century a time of enlightenment, because it was at this time that a lot of educational institutions opened, including the Academy of Arts and Moscow University.
Also, the art of the 18th century was especially distinguished, because it was at this time that the first theater appeared. It is worth noting that it was the second half of the 18th century that can be called the heyday of Russian painting. Portraiture was especially popular then, perhaps this was due to the fact that many authoritative figures sought to immortalize their faces on the canvases of artists.
Also, Russian literature of the 18th century, the main direction of which was classicism, occupied a worthy place in the history of this period of time. The most important place in literature at that time was occupied by such genres as satires, comedies, dramatic tragedies and poetic odes. Books of the 18th century were distinguished by the special irony that their authors endowed. They reflected the life of that time and its features.
Architecture of the 18th century also occupied an important place in history, characterized by the Baroque style in the mid-18th century and classicism in the second half of the 18th century. Many historical architectural structures were erected, such as the Winter Palace, the Great Catherine Palace and the Great Palace in Peterhof.
Consider the outstanding and talented architects of that distant time. From them we have left many cultural monuments as our heritage.
It is impossible to tell about everything that happened in the 18th century, but we can confidently say that it was this time in history that left a huge imprint not only on the past, but also on the future of Russia.
So, now you know what an important role the 18th century played in the history of Russia. Also, after reading this article, you learned about the features of fine art, architecture of that time, and the influence of the 18th century on the modern World. This will help you be more educated and better understand the history of our Motherland. We wish you good luck!
The important 18th century occupies a special place in history. This is one of the most “integral” eras, which is called the last century of the dominance of aristocratic culture. Thanks to this period, a culture of cleanliness and caring for one’s body came to our modern world. Here are just some interesting facts regarding hygiene and life in the 18th century in Russia.
It is difficult to imagine a modern person without washing, taking a bath or shower. But residents of that time considered such procedures dangerous to their health. There was an opinion that hot water facilitates the penetration of infections into the body. That is why water procedures were used in clothing until the end of the 19th century.
There is an opinion that the infrequent bathing of people is a consequence of medieval customs. But in the Middle Ages, people washed much more often, knowing that sloppiness leads to epidemics. The negative attitude towards water procedures is a consequence of the philosophy of the Renaissance, when washing too often was considered harmful to health.
As for the oral cavity, teeth were cleaned with a toothpick or wiped with a rag. Later, the production of toothpaste was launched, but only wealthy people could afford to buy it.
Deodorant appeared at the end of the 18th century. People of the upper class hid unpleasant odors on their bodies behind a layer of perfume. By the end of 1800, they launched the production of antiperspirants; they have survived to this day under the “Mama” brand.
Hair care and removal of body hair were not part of the habits of people of that era. Although even now there is an ambiguous attitude towards hair removal - it certainly does not help health.
Unpleasant odors came from every house. This is due to the fact that toilets did not exist in our modern understanding. They relieved themselves in the potty. Later, open latrines appeared, the contents of which were poured into the street.
There was no toilet paper; its invention dates back to the end of the 18th century. Instead of paper, they used fabrics that they didn’t mind throwing away.
Fetid odors were not uncommon on the city streets. To protect his lady from the spray that flew from the horse cart, the gentleman walked closer to the edge of the road, often covering her with his cloak.
During the Renaissance, bed insects were considered the norm. They were carriers and distributors of many infections. To combat them, kerosene was used and the bottom of the beds was wiped with it.
Mercury was another weapon in the fight against insects of that time. With its help, people destroyed lice and harmed their own health.
Thin combs were used to comb out insects for both the poor and the rich. Ladies who were richer bought combs made of ivory or even made of precious metals.
As for interesting facts from life in the 18th century in Russia, they are well described in the book “Brief information about the northern regions” by the Japanese scientist Hoshu Katsurogawa. Here are just a few of the oddities that surprised the Japanese guest.
Russians have dark hair, blue eyes and noses like potatoes. Peasants have beards, and nobles are shaved. The inhabitants of Siberia are dark-eyed. All are tall, with correct posture. Peace-loving, moderately strict and hardworking.
The standard of female beauty is a bright blush on the cheeks. In clothes they resemble the Germans, and the men resemble the Dutch.
To achieve gray hair, sprinkle hair with powder or starch.
People's houses are lower than churches.
Salaries are paid in money, not in grain.
They speak Russian, interweaving words from French or German.
When a child is born, they give money. A relative who comes up with a richer name for the baby. The newborn is placed in a box suspended from the roof, covered with straw.
The husband has one wife. To marry a Russian, a foreigner must accept the Russian faith by changing his first and last name. In rich families, blacks serve from 2 to 8 people, everything depends on the wealth of the owner.
The dishes are hearty. They start with ham and bread, chicken soup and beef, then fish broth and finally dough balls. Before serving sweets, they eat goose and thin porridge.
They do not skimp on sugar and oil for cooking. The bird is stuffed with vegetables and cereals. Ordinary people eat meat or fish with bread.
Beef is considered an everyday food among all segments of the population.
The country is cold, this is due to its location.
Frosts in St. Petersburg and Yakutsk are severe.
Summer is not hot, so cereals grow poorly.
The main holiday in Russia is the birthday of the Empress. Unlike the New Year, it is celebrated much more magnificently.
Female roles in the theater are played by actresses, not male actors.
Everyone rides horses. Women sit sideways, bending one leg under themselves, and hanging the other out of the saddle.
Russia has always been a mystery for many countries and their representatives. If we talk about the 18th century, there was a lot of things that are now not used and forgotten, but also things and phenomena appeared that can be seen in our time. 
The population of Russia watched with great interest the course of events in France. N.M. Karamzin, who was a direct eyewitness to the revolutionary events, subsequently wrote that they “determine the destinies of people for a long series of centuries.”
The collapse of French feudalism delighted and encouraged the progressive people of Russia, who at that time were fighting for the abolition of serfdom. Contemporaries noted that “the French revolution had many adherents in Russia, as in other places,” that “free speech about autocratic power (became) almost universal, and the feeling rushing toward unbridled freedom was inflamed by the example of France.”
On January 1, 1790, the Political Journal began to be published at Moscow University. It described in detail the course of events in revolutionary France. In an address to the readers of the magazine, Professor P.A. Sokhatsky wrote that “1789 became an eternally unforgettable year between the years of many centuries,” that “the beginning of a new era of the human race took place in Europe - the era of oppression of spontaneous power and correction of the fate of the so-called low states.” A whole stream of French revolutionary publications came to Russia. Contemporaries noted: “Every book that is published in France can be secretly purchased here.” They were translated by professional translators and students, and then sold under the counter in the form of handwritten lists.
The ideas of the French Revolution had a great influence on the best minds of Russia, including the revolutionary thinker A.N. Radishchev, the satirist and educator N.I. Novikov and many other figures of Russian culture. The tsarist government of Catherine II mercilessly stifled all manifestations of freethinking: Radishchev was exiled, Novikov was thrown into prison. But they were replaced by new supporters of freedom. One of these people was F.V. Krechetov, who called for “the greatest rebellion, one that has never happened before.” He demanded “to overthrow the power of the autocracy, to create either a republic or something else, so that everyone can be equal.”
After the death of Catherine II, the new Emperor Paul I (1796 - 1801) ascended the throne. He tried by any means to strengthen the dominance of the nobility in society. His government mercilessly suppressed peasant unrest, which covered as many as thirty-two provinces. During his reign, serfdom was not only not abolished, but also became further extended to Novorossia, Don and Ciscaucasia - about 600 thousand state peasants were given to landowners.
Frightened by the scale of peasant unrest, Paul I tried to somehow improve their situation. In 1797, he issued a decree in which he recommended that landowners limit corvee to three days a week, but this decree did not receive any practical application.
Progressive thinkers who opposed the autocracy continued to be subjected to severe punishment - V.V. Passek, F.V. Krechetov, I. Rozhnov and others. Strict censorship was introduced in the country, travel abroad for the purpose of education was prohibited, and private printing houses and educational institutions were closed everywhere.
To strengthen the autocratic system, Paul I sought further political centralization. To this end, he limited noble self-government and abolished some noble privileges. From now on, for example, it was difficult for nobles to resign from government service. In 1797, he restored the order of succession to the throne by primogeniture, that is, from father to eldest son, and in the absence of direct heirs, to the eldest of the brothers. The policy of Paul I was entirely aimed at strengthening the serf-feudal system. Nevertheless, even those few and half-hearted measures that he tried to take to alleviate the situation of the common people caused discontent among some circles of the nobility and especially the capital's nobility, as well as senior officers. In principle, this dissatisfaction was directed not so much at actions, but at the very personality of Paul I, at the tyranny and whims of the emperor.
Despite the fact that Russia did not take part in the First Anti-French Coalition, Catherine II was the worst enemy of the French Revolution. As mentioned above, Russia abandoned the war with France, since it fought in the East and with the rebels led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko. As soon as the uprising in Poland and Belarus was suppressed, Russia immediately began to prepare for a campaign in France.
As you know, Paul I did almost everything contrary to the decisions of his mother. At the beginning of his reign, he entered into negotiations with France, but there were serious contradictions between the two states in Germany, the Middle East and the Polish question. The expedition of the French army under the command of General Bonaparte to Egypt and his capture of Malta and the Ionian Islands ran counter to the interests of Russian policy in the East. This led to Russia joining the Second Anti-French Coalition. At the beginning of 1799, an alliance was concluded between Russia and Turkey, thanks to which the Russian navy received the right to free passage through the straits controlled by the Ottoman Porte. The combined Russian-Turkish fleet, commanded by F.F. Ushakov, soon liberated the Ionian Islands from the French. Admiral Ushakov contributed to the introduction of a progressive constitution for that time on these islands. According to the Russian-Turkish convention of 1800, the “Republic of the Seven United Islands” was created, which was under the dual protectorate of Russia and Turkey, although formally its overlord was the Turkish Sultan.
It should be noted that subsequently the Ionian Republic played a major role in the development of the Greek national liberation movement.
After Suvorov's army arrived in Northern Italy, it inflicted a number of major defeats on the French. Then republican rule was abolished in Italy and feudal order was restored.
The second coalition turned out to be short-lived. In Russia, dissatisfaction was caused by the policies of Austria, because of which Russian troops in Italy found themselves in a difficult situation. By this time, Russian-British contradictions in the Middle East and the Mediterranean had also intensified. The British tried in every possible way to destroy the alliance between Russia and Turkey and oust Russia from the Ionian Islands. Having captured Malta, they were not going to let it out of their hands, while Paul I himself wanted to make Malta a stronghold of the Russian fleet in the Mediterranean.
All this led to the fact that Paul I recalled Russian troops from the theater of military operations and in 1800 broke off relations with England, imposing sequestration on English goods and ships located in Russia. After this, he entered into an alliance with Sweden, Denmark and Prussia, directed against England. Russia has again renewed the rules of armed neutrality. At the same time, Paul I began negotiations with France about peace, an alliance against England and a joint campaign in India. Thus, England and Russia found themselves in a state of war. The English fleet under the command of Admiral Nelson defeated the Danish fleet allied with Russia in the roadstead in Copenhagen and moved on to Kronstadt and Revel.
The policy of Paul I, directed against England, was extremely unpopular in the noble circles of Russia, since England was the most important market for goods exported by Russian landowners. The rapprochement with France also did not find supporters among the nobility, who hated the French Revolution and the Republic. Therefore, the tsar’s foreign policy intensified the growing discontent among the nobles and served as an impetus for organizing a palace conspiracy. Prominent courtiers and capital officers took part in it. The heir to the throne, Alexander Pavlovich himself, knew about the conspiracy. The English ambassador to St. Petersburg, Charles Whitworth, who was expelled by Paul I from Russia, also maintained contacts with the conspirators. On March 12, 1801, Pavel was killed in the Mikhailovsky Palace, and Alexander I (1801 - 1825) became his successor.
